In the heart of Pavia’s historic center, the towering remnants of a bygone era stand tall, bearing witness to the city’s rich medieval history. The noble towers of Pavia are a testament to the wealth and influence of the families that once called this northern Italian city home.
During the high medieval period, noble towers became a characteristic feature of Northern Italian cities. Later, similar towers were built also in some German cities that maintained trade relations with the Italian north, such as Nuremberg, Constance, and Regensburg. Noble towers were constructed by affluent families for both representative and defensive purposes. Before the 12th century, many cities lacked effective walls, prompting the construction of towers for outer defense. Additionally, these structures served as inner defenses, particularly during inner-city feuds.
The design of the towers was influenced by the limited space in medieval cities, resulting in a narrow and tall structure with a square shape for enhanced defense. Typically, each floor housed a single room, connected by ladders. Over generations, towers were extended for status. In a seismically active region like Northern Italy, this inadvertently increased the risk of collapse.
In Pavia, the first towers were erected in the 11th century. Being home to many wealthy families during the Middle Ages, Pavia’s skyline was soon full of towers, resulting in its moniker “the city of 100 towers”. This, however, is an exaggeration which yet suggests the prominence and sheer number of towers in Medieval Pavia. Historians believe the actual number of towers peaked at around 65. Notably, unlike in many other places, the towers in Pavia served purely representational purposes.
A 16th century fresco in the church of San Teodoro. It depicts Pavia with numerous towers inside its well protected city walls, highlighting the fact that the towers were not built for defensive, but representational purposes, only (FabioRomanoni, CC BY-SA 4.0).
The meaning of the tower’s representional character becomes clearer when viewed through a lens of early capitalism, which was emerging during that time. Despite lacking practical use or aesthetic appeal, the towers offered an objective measure of status: height. In a competitive society, where the quantification of wealth and power was emerging, these towers symbolized the conversion of economic capital into symbolic and political capital. This Bourdieuan interpretation suggests that the race to build the tallest tower was a decentralized means for patrician families to assert dominance in a changing socio-economic landscape. The towers may not have been practical or exceptionally beautiful, but they became powerful symbols of prestige and influence.
Today, 25 towers remain to some extent. Five towers still stand in their full size, with three located at Piazza Leonardo da Vinci and two on Via Luigi Porta. Others were removed, shortened, or used to construct new buildings. The surviving towers in Pavia, like the Maino tower at Piazza Leonardo da Vinci (standing at an impressive 51 meters), bear witness to the city’s architectural legacy. Notable counterparts include the San Dalmazio tower on Via Luigi Porta, standing at 41 meters. The towers have an average side length of 5 meters, built on a square foundation block made of bound river pebbles for structural stability. Originally, the towers were surrounded by residential buildings and palazzi. Openings were limited, with access granted through doors on upper floors leading to neighbouring buildings. Ground floor doors seen today were not originally constructed but added later.
As Pavia transitioned to the late medieval period under Visconti lordship, the towers lost their symbolic value. With diminished rivalry between Pavian families, many towers were reduced in height or removed. In the 17th and 18th centuries, concerns about stability further led to the modification and removal of these medieval structures. Notably, a tower repurposed as a bell tower collapsed as late as 1987.
Pavia’s medieval towers offer a captivating glimpse into the city’s storied past, reflecting the economic prosperity and turbulent conflicts of the medieval period. Preserved against the odds, these towers stand as enduring symbols of Northern Italy’s architectural heritage, providing modern visitors with a tangible connection to a bygone era.
Saint Augustine of Hippo (354-430) was a theologian and philosopher of North African origin. He was born in Thagaste, now Souk Ahras in Algeria and was the bishop of Hippo Regius, under the Roman Empire which is currently Annaba in Algeria. He is considered one of the pillars of the Church Fathers who established the intellectual cornerstones of Christianity. His writings have been influential in the development of Western Christianity and Western philosophy. The Spring School of Paleography 2024 provided me with the opportunity to visit the Basilica of San Pietro in Ciel d’Oro in Pavia, where a reliquary houses the sacred remains of Saint Augustine
Painting of Saint Augustin by Philippe de Champaigne
Augustine’s Encounter with Manichaeism
At the age of seventeen, Augustine embarked on an intellectual and spiritual exploration within Manichaeism, attracted by its synthesis of Christian doctrine and Persian dualism. This engagement during his Carthaginian period was driven by a search for a rationalistic interpretation of faith, which Manichaeism appeared to offer through its narratives on the nature of evil and human sin. The sect’s portrayal of a cosmological conflict between light and darkness appealed to Augustine, promising an enlightened perspective that aligned with his critical pursuits.
Following a period of deep engagement with Manichaeism, Augustine’s journey took him through phases of hedonism, skepticism, and profound philosophical inquiry, leading to a state of disillusionment with the various doctrines he had encountered. His pursuit for truth and understanding led him into the depths of “Academic Doubt,” a skepticism rooted in the teachings of the Platonic Academy, which questioned the very possibility of knowing truth. This phase of existential doubt plunged Augustine into a profound depression, as he grappled with the futility of finding absolute truth through human intellect alone.
The Path towards Embracing Christianity
Amidst a profound disillusionment with Manichaeism, astrology, and prior intellectual engagements, Augustine confronted the profound question of whether absolute truth could ever be apprehended by human intellect. His explorations led him to encounter Neo-Platonism, which, drawing from Plotinus, advocated for an introspective quest away from the fallible sensory world towards the immutable truths that stand beyond empirical scrutiny. This philosophical pivot facilitated Augustine’s recognition of certain indubitable truths concerning his own existence, cognition, and intrinsic value.
This epiphany, underpinning a newfound reconciliation with the notion of unchanging truth, significantly propelled Augustine towards a spiritual and intellectual transformation. Parallel to this internal journey, Augustine’s interactions with Ambrose, the influential Bishop of Milan and a master of rhetoric, enriched his understanding and appreciation of Christianity, bridging his philosophical revelations with theological insights. This amalgamation of introspective discovery and theological engagement culminated in a critical juncture in Augustine’s life, laying the foundational groundwork for his eventual conversion to Christianity, marking a decisive turn in his life.
Augustine’s Baptism
In 386, Augustine’s conversion in Milan led him to prepare for baptism under Bishop Ambrose’s guidance, paralleling today’s RCIA (Rite of Christian Initiation of Adults) program. This preparation involved detailed instruction, scrutinies to assess sincerity, and ceremonies emphasizing commitment to Christianity. Augustine and his companions, including his son Adeodatus, underwent a transformative preparation period, culminating in a deeply impactful baptism ceremony during Easter 387. This experience, enriched by the liturgical music and rituals, led Augustine to a profound realization of peace through unity with the Creator, famously expressing, “You made us for yourself and our hearts find no peace until they rest in you.” Augustine’s baptism was a pivotal moment, marking his formal entry into the Christian faith alongside his son.
Saint Augustine’s baptism by Bishop Ambrose in the Cathedral of Milan together with his son
Augustine the Bishop
After his return to Thagasthe, Augustine formed a community in Hippo. His journey to becoming Bishop of Hippo began with his ordination as a priest in 391, during which he established a monastic community for clergy on church grounds. This community blended monastic life with apostolic duties, emphasizing communal living and strict poverty. Upon becoming assistant bishop in 395, Augustine expanded this communal model to his episcopal household, living and working alongside his clergy under a rule that stressed humility and service.
Valerius, the then Bishop of Hippo, identified Augustine as his successor early on, navigating the canonical hurdles to appoint him as coadjutor bishop despite a false scandal. Augustine’s approach to his episcopal role was deeply influenced by his monastic ideals, focusing on serving Christ humbly and prioritizing communal over individual interests. Throughout his tenure, he balanced the spiritual and administrative demands of his office, advocating for a Christian identity that transcended his clerical duties and laying a foundational example for future religious communities.
The Tomb of Saint Augustine of Hippo in Pavia
The Spring school was an opportunity that allowed me to connect personally with the legacy of one of Christianity’s most influential figures. The presence of the relics of Saint Augustine not only serves as a tangible link to the past but also embodies the culmination of his journey and teachings. It was a unique spiritual occasion to embrace the past within the walls of a sacred space that has safeguarded his legacy for centuries.
Bibliography:
Brown, Peter. Augustine of Hippo: A Biography. University of California Press, 2000.
LANCEL, Serge. Augustin et la société féminine de son temps In : Saint Augustin : La Numidie et la société de son temps [en ligne]. Pessac: Ausonius Éditions, 2005
Gafford II, J. A. (2015). The life and conversion of Augustine of Hippo. Tenor of Our Times, 4(1).
Let us step inside the walls of Visconti Castle, at the heart of Pavia, a must-visit castle if you ever visit this small town. Not to be mistaken with other castles with the same name, Castello Visconteo di Pavia is only 50 minutes away from Milan by train. Our little series, Walk Through the Castello Visconteo aims to give you a glimpse of the castle and the museums (Musei Civici di Pavia), where the history breathes through every stone and fresco. Built between 1360 and 1365 under the rule of Galeazzo II Visconti, the castle stands as an example of Lombardia’s late Gothic architecture. Although the northern wing of the castle was lost during the Italian War of 1521-1526 under attack by France, today the majority of the castle remains intact and still as captivating as it was first built.
Castello Visconteo outside of the WallsCastello Visconteo – East Ravelin Entrance from Left
Once you step into the castle, you get to explore not only the castle itself but also the museums it is housing. With our blog series, we will take you on a swift tour of the castle and these museums. We will start with the rooms that successfully preserved some unique frescoes from the periods of two ruling families of Milan: Sforza (1450-1535) and Visconti (1277-1447).
Despite the castle’s partial destruction, the remaining structure still reflects the artistic and architectural brilliance of its era. Visitors can explore the courtyard, the portico, and the loggia with a modest entry fee of 1 euro, while the castle’s rooms house museum collections are accessible with a Civic Museums ticket, which costs 10 euros, or even as cheap as 5 euros on some festive days.
Coat of arms of the Visconti of MilanCoat of arms of the House Sforza
A Glimpse of the Courtyard
Standing in the courtyard, one cannot help but notice the harmonious yet distinct look of the architectural complex. Originally designed as a square structure approximately 150 meters on each side, complete with four corner towers, the castle’s perfection was slightly spoiled by the destruction of the northern wing. Yet, this does not change the majestic atmosphere that fills the space.
CourtyardAs you stroll along the porticoes, the castle’s rich history unfolds before you.
Built swiftly after Galeazzo II Visconti’s conquest of Pavia in 1359, the castle was ready for decoration by 1366, when Galeazzo II sought the finest painters of the time to adorn its walls. Today, visitors can still admire the surviving frescoes and sinopias that speak of its grand past.
SinopiaFresco
“The lunette preserves fragments of an almost illegible frescoed composition, which was part of a narrative cycle dedicated to the exploits of Galeazzo II Visconti, the lord who, after conquering Pavia in November 1359, had the castle built as the residence of the Visconti court and adorned it by calling the best painters active in northern Italy. This cycle occupied the sections of the walls of the lunettes under each arch, probably without interruption, as demonstrated by the presence of the fragment found under the impost of the sub-arch near the passage from the west ravelin…. Along the edges of the lunettes and the ribs in the vaults, there are still geometric decorations here and there – with cosmatesque stars, polylobed frames, and vegetal elements – sometimes resulting from early 20th-century restorations presumably based on pre-existing models.“
– Description Label of the Fresco, in Castello Visconteo
Throughout your walk, pay close attention to the details that offer insights into the daily life and history of the castle:
• Inscriptions:
Painted above some doors, these inscriptions indicated the function of the rooms within.
• • •
• Stonecutters‘ Marks:
Engraved into the stones used for columns and other structures, these marks reveal the craftsmanship behind the castle’s construction.
• • •
• Graffiti:
Spanning from the 16th century to the 19th century, when the castle served as a barracks, these markings provide a personal glimpse into the lives of those who once inhabited this space.
• • •
The Castello Visconteo of Pavia is more than just an architectural marvel; it is a living museum that encapsulates centuries of history, art, and culture. As you wander through its halls and courtyards, you are not merely observing relics of the past, but engaging with the stories and legacies that have shaped this magnificent structure. Enjoy your journey through time and let the echoes of the past enrich your understanding of the present.
We hope that our introduction to the Castello Visconteo was enough to grab your attention! Please stay tuned for Part 2!
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Black, Jane. Absolutism in Renaissance Milan Plenitude of Power under the Visconti and the Sforza, 1329-1535 Jane Black. 1st ed., Oxford Univ. Press, 2010.
“Il Castello.” Il Castello – Musei Civici Di Pavia, museicivici.comune.pv.it/site/home/il-castello.html. Accessed 23 Apr. 2024.
In the heart of Pavia, the San Pietro in Ciel d’Oro stands as a remarkable example of medieval architecture, representing the city’s deep religious roots. As you can see from the following picture, three arches at the base of the sandstone-adorned façade are remnants of an old portico that allude to the church’s illustrious past.
Façade of the building: https://www.lombardiabeniculturali.it/architetture/schede/PV240-00258/
The church’s name, translating to “Saint Peter in Golden Heaven,” is not merely a title but a reflection of the divine inspiration behind its construction. It refers to its exquisite gold leaf mosaics nestled behind the glass tesserae of the apse ceiling, creating a radiant ambiance that bathes the interior in a soft, golden light.
The “Golden Sky” at the ceiling of the apse: http://www.augnet.org/en/history/places/4236-italy-pavia/
History
The earliest known mention dated back to the year of 604, with a record of a church of Saint Peter the Apostle in Pavia. However, it is widely believed that the church’s foundation goes back to even further. The church has experienced several significant renovations and witnessed key historical events over the years. The present Romanesque church was consecrated by Pope Innocent II in 1132.
The first major renovation was carried out by Liutprand, the King of the Lombards, sometime between 720 and 725. This renovation is closely tied to the transfer of Saint Augustine’s remains from Sardinia to the basilica. Liutprand initiated this move to safeguard the saint’s remains from desecration by the Saracens. Interestingly, Liutprand’s own tomb was later moved to this church as well, though this happened between 1169 and 1180.
Tomb of Liutprand, the King of the Lombards: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:0495_-Pavia–S._Pietro–Tomba_di_Liutprando-_Foto_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto,_Oct_17_2009.jpg
St. Augustine
Today, for modern scholars and tourists alike, the church is renowned primarily as the final resting place of St. Augustine’s remains. His remains, moved here in the 14th century, have made this church a significant pilgrimage destination.
In the center of the church, under the golden ceiling, you have a direct view of the Tomb of St Augustine.
Tomb of St Augustine: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Pietro_in_Ciel_d%27Oro#/media/File:Arca_di_S.Agostino(1362),_Pavia,_S._Pietro_in_Ciel_d’Oro_16.JPG
For more information about St. Augustine, you can refer to other blogs.
Vitrual Access to San Pietro in Ciel d’Oro
In an era where technology breaks down physical barriers, the legacy of this venerable church is finding new life through digital platforms. Online resources and virtual tours are now key avenues, offering everyone, anywhere, a chance to delve into the church’s Romanesque splendor and rich history.
A screen shot from the Basilica visita virtuale: https://www.basilicasanpietroincieldoro.com/visita-virtuale-EN/?scene=63fca0405ee4a1280d09ea41
Through the webstie above, you can easily see a view of the interior of the church, including several audio description.
Besides, there are some other online resources offered by the church, for example an official Youtube channel. On this channel, you can simpliy follow the fathers with a clear introduction and experience the beauty of San Pietro in Ciel d’Oro.
The Certosa has two origin stories. One of them follows the narrative that the Certosa was a selfless and devout gift from the first Duke of Milan, Gian Galeazzo Visconti, to his deeply religious wife Caterina Visconti. This story claims that the Duke’s second wife Caterina had been advised by a servant of God, monk Stefano Macone, to build a charterhouse in the area where the Certosa now stands. And because the duke was known for his kindness he ordered the Certosa to be built at the bequest of Caterina, at the turn of the fifteenth century. Though a romantic and pious origin story, it doesn’t hold up when we look at the character and actions of the first Duke of Milan: Gian Galeazzo Visconti.
In reality duke Gian Galeazzo Visconti was an incredibly ambitious man, who would use ruthless force to see his dreams come true. Upon the death of his father, Galeazzo II Visconti in 1378, Gian Galeazzo became lord of Pavia and quickly started expanding his realm both through conquest and through diplomacy. One of these instances of insatiable conquest comes in the form of Gian Galeazzo betraying his own family by marriage in order to consolidate his rule. On 6 May 1385, Gian Galeazzo Visconti went on a supposedly innocent mission of pilgrimage to Milan with the intention of meeting Caterina Visconti’s father, as well as his uncle Bernabò Visconti, who welcomed Gian Galazzo to his home in Milan. However, the true intention of this pilgrimage was to usurp the holdings of Bernabò and imprison him and his relatives. This coup d’état was what eventually led to him assuming the title “Duke of Milan” and acquiring the power and wealth to build the Certosa di Pavia. But through his actions we can see that the piety and the close familial connections of Gian Galeazzo weren’t the reasons for his desire to build the Certosa in the first place. It was most likely the strategic location of the Certosa that convinced him, since it would act as a mid-way point between the two influential cities of Pavia and Milan. Another reason may well have been a sense of prestige upon undertaking and funding such an ambitious and influential project.
A decade after Gian Galeazzo’s coup d’état, the project of building the Certosa was entrusted to Bernardo da Venezia. Because he was undertaking the project of building the Duomo di Milano at the same time, a sort of competition developed between the two major religious buildings. The construction of the Certosa started out with the laying of the first slab, which was an important event not only because it marked the birth of the Certosa, but also because it assembled the people who attended the event and who laid the first pieces. The laying of the first foundation stone on 27 August 1396 was attended by the most important individuals in the Duchy of Milan. This list included members of the nobility, the Bishop of Pavia, who consecrated the event, notables from the other Italian duchies, members of the recently founded University of Pavia, and the duke of Milan himself – Gian Galeazzo Visconti – who placed the first slab. This scene is immortalized within the Certosa’s church portal.
The plans of how the Certosa was to be built depended on the religious order that was going to run the monastery. The monastery was to be a charterhouse, according to the Carthusian model. This meant that the Certosa was to be built with two cloisters, one larger (great cloister), and one smaller (small cloister), with cells surrounding the cloister(s) where the Carthusian monks lived. But since the Certosa also acted as a place of residence for the duke, a ducal palace was incorporated into the complex, together with a large church.
Though work on the Certosa had begun and continued for multiple years, the building progress was disappointingly slow. By comparison, the rival project of the Duomo di Milano had already been erected as a recognizable structure, while the Certosa’s foundation was still being placed. At the same time, the Carthusian monks were either forced to live in a bare cloister, or to move to other locations to continue their cloistered practices.
The construction of the Certosa came to a sudden halt when Duke Gian Galeazzo Visconti died in 1402 and funding for the project died with him. It was only in 1412, when Gian Galeazzo’s successor Filippo Maria Visconti came to power, that new funding enabled the construction to recommence, this time under architect Giovanni Solari who, like his predecessors, also helped build the Duomo di Milano. It was during the reign of Filippo Maria that much of the Certosa was built: the refectory, library, small cloister, and vestibule were mostly or fully completed and furnished at this time.
The construction of the Certosa was halted once again upon the death of Filippo Maria Visconti in 1447. With it, the Visconti realm was thrust into disorder. It was only when the Sforza dynasty came to power a decade later that construction continued once again. Francesco Sforza, who had no “true” claim to the Visconti lands, wished to consolidate and legitimize his rule and so ordered the Certosa to be worked on once again. The Certosa was finally finished under the Sforza in 1491, with the completion of the church façade. Though plagued by a shortage of marble, the full Certosa di Pavia complex was finished on 16 October 1494, almost a hundred years after the first foundation slab had been placed.
However, it wasn’t until 1550 that the exterior of the Certosa was remodelled to look as it does today.
The feature that stands out the most in the Certosa di Pavia complex is the magnificent church building. It was the last building to be completed, most likely because of the competition between the Certosa and the Duomo for the necessary marble required to finish the works. In the end the church was able to obtain the resources and was adorned with an incredibly detailed Gothic church-facade.
After 1550, several spires were added to the church building.
The view of the Certosa from behind the church building, with a view of the spires. Source: https://www.certosadipavia.it
Upon entering the interior of the church we see some of the finest work of Italian artisans of the time.
A painting of the church’s interior from 18th century. This interior remains largely unchanged. Source: Maximilien de Haese (1765), “Church of the Certosa di Pavia”.
Looking up at the ceiling of the central nave, we see that it is made up of intersecting arches and elaborate tile patterns, with gold inlays where the arches intersect. In addition, a star-like pattern and blue background runs horizontally along both the nave and the aisle sections. Above the transept of the church we find a modest dome that is decorated by a fresco that is divided into eight sections, each portraying a different image.
The aisles accommodate seven side chapels in total, each of them containing works of art that are famous in their own right. The transept of the church is closed off from the public by a metal fence, but on the right side it is still possible to see Gian Galeazzo Visconti immortalized. The image shows an image of him and his family gifting the Certosa to the Virgin Mary, with his tomb standing immediately underneath.
In the chancel of the church, in accordance with Carthusian tradition, the choir and the altar are hidden away form the public. The choir stalls have incredibly detailed wood inlays. Tthe walls surrounding the altar are completely covered with works of art: not a single space remains that is not covered with either frescoes or sculptures.
Lastly, the old sacristy contains a masterpiece by Baldassarre degli Embriachi: a triptych that is made mainly out of hippopotamus teeth and turtle bone. Two and a half meters in both height and width, it ambitiously portrays the life of Jesus, John the Baptist, and John the Evangelist.
The small cloister is, as the name indicates, the smallest part of the Certosa di Pavia complex. Due to its size, the basic structure of the cloister had already been completed by 1402, but the decorations were only completed in 1460. Though it takes up little space in the complex, it is a central and important meeting point for people living in the Certosa, since it is bordered by the church, ducal palace, and great cloister. The roof of the small cloister had been covered in copper plate, but during the Napoleonic wars it was taken off to be melted down and made into cannons.
The great cloister is the accommodation area for the Certosa. This is where the Carthusian monks spent their lives living in solitude and silence. At first the great cloister included 23 cells, but in the sixteenth century this was expanded to a total of 36 cells. Some monks lived in actual houses, whose roofs are visible rising above the individual cells. The structure of the great cloister had already been built in 1463, with the finishing decoration being being completed by 1480. The large lawn in the middle of cloister was used for the monks to plant flowers and medicinal plants if needed. The northern corner of the lawn was used as a burial ground before the eighteenth century.
Even though nowadays the building in between the church and the small cloister in the south is called the ducal palace, this locations was only occasionally used as a summer residence by the lords in the region. It is only in the early-to-mid 17th century that the construction of the ducal palace as we see it today, was built in the baroque style. Today the ducal palace primarily houses the Certosa di Pavia museum.
After the Certosa was officially finished with the celebratory festivities in 1494. In the 16th century as mentioned before, the exterior of the buildings in the Certosa complex had been further embellished with detail, such as the continued work on the church facade, and the interiors had been additionally furnished. At the same time we get manuscripts being produced in the Certosa, most notably the missals and chorals.
And in the 17th century we have the ducal palace built, this becoming the most “golden-age” of the Certosa di Pavia seen in its most complete, though issues about completing the church facade were still ongoing. In the 18th century a change occurred, artworks were still being produced to further contribute to the already extravagant complex, but the power of the church started being undermined with the arrival of Enlightenment thought. Because of this the Certosa did not have as much funding as before, and not only that, the Carthusian order that had been inhabiting the complex since its beginnings, had been replaced by the Cistercians, and then not soon after changed ownership to the Carmelites. All the meanwhile in the late 18th century northern Italy was being invaded by Napoleon and bringing secular changes to the region, further diminishing the power of the church. During this time the collections of artwork of the Certosa was looted, and resources for the war effort were stripped away from the Certosa’s buildings.
In the early 19th century the Certosa was rid of the French, and in the mid-19th century the Carthusians were once again allowed to return to the complex. But this was a short lived residence as in 1880 they were once again told to leave as the state of the Kingdom of Italy had acquired the complex. In the early 20th century, the Certosa was in desperate need of reconstruction still recovering from the pillaging at the hands of Napoleonic troops a century before, however during the First World War restorations were halted. They are quickly continued after the war, and the Certosa is given back once again to the Carthusians, while Italy falls under fascism with Benito Mussolini leading the country. Benito Mussolini ends up visiting the Certosa complex in 1932 the same year the Carthusian order had returned back to the Certosa.
Benito Mussolini visiting the Certosa di Pavia, and meeting with the father prior. Source: https://www.certosadipavia.it/
The Certosa and fascist dictator Benito Mussolini end up having an interesting relationship after the war. After Mussolini had been killed, he was buried in the Musocco cemetery in Milan, but in April 1946 the grave had signs of being recently dug up, and it was found that the corpse of Mussolini was not there.
A couple of months later a lead in the investigation was discovered, where two Franciscan monks, Father Zucca and Father Parini were brought up by a neo-fascist suspect Domenico Leccisi in an interrogation. Through that the investigation is led to the Certosa di Pavia on August 12th 1946, where the corpse of the fascist dictator is found on the premises encased in two rubber bags and a wooden coffin. It is later found out that the two Fathers did not have any involvement in the hiding of the body and were probably used as scapegoats by Domenico Leccisi and his neo-fascist group who had actually dug up the body.
After this incident the Carthusians are replaced by the Carmelites again, yet they are then replaced by the Cistercians soon after in 1968, the religious order that inhabits the Certosa di Pavia till this day. The last exciting story that happens in the Certosa is the stealing of the Embriachi Triptych in the old sacristy in 1984, which was intended to be sold abroad, the perpetrators are imprisoned soon after and one of the oldest pieces of the Certosa is returned back without suffering any serious damage.
Saint Augustine of Hippo, also known as Augustine of Thagaste (354-430), is one of the most influential figures in Christian history. The tale of his life journey from a wayward youth to a renowned bishop and theologian is a remarkable one, that is also deeply relevant to a modern reader. This blog post is a re-qorked version of the presentation that I did in Pavia in March 2023 for the purpose of the Göttingen Palaeography Spring School. The topics covered in this post will range from the life of Saint Augustine and his early years to his lasting legacy, as well as where he is laid to rest.
Augustine was born on November 13, 354, in Thagaste, a small town in what is now Algeria. He was raised in a Christian family where his mother, Saint Monica, played a pivotal role in his spiritual upbringing. Augustine received an education, studying rhetoric and philosophy in Carthage, where he developed a passion for intellectual pursuits. However, despite his Christian background, Augustine embarked on a rebellious journey in his early adulthood. He embraced a hedonistic lifestyle, not only seeking pleasure and worldly success, but also starting a family and having children with his mistress. The turning point in Augustine’s life was the conversion to Christianity, which came to be through an encounter with Saint Ambrose, Bishop of Milan. Influenced by Ambrose’s eloquence and his study of the Bible, Augustine was profoundly moved by the message of Christ’s love and redemption. In 387, at the age of 33, he underwent a dramatic conversion experience, symbolized by his baptism by Ambrose in Milan. This resulted in Augustine leaving his children and mistress to pursue Christian enlightenment.
Augustine as Bishop and Theologian
Following his conversion to Christianity, Augustine devoted himself to a life of service in the Christian Church. He became a priest and eventually a bishop. Throughout his life as a bishop, he spent most of his time preaching, writing extensive works, and engaging in debates defending orthodox Christian teachings. His works covered a wide range of subjects, most importantly theology, philosophy, ethics, and the nature of God, which have had a profound impact on Western thought and continue to be widely studied and revered. Among his most notable works are the “Confessions”, an introspective autobiography reflecting on his spiritual journey and struggles; “City of God”, a work addressing the relationship between Christianity and secular society; and “On Christian Doctrine”, a guide to interpreting scripture and teachings of the faith.
Although many of his original manuscripts have been lost or destroyed, some manuscripts still survive. The Corpus Augustinianum Veronense, which is located in the Biblioteca Capitolare in Verona, Italy, contains various works of Augustine. Notable among them is Codex Veronensis, which includes the oldest known complete copy of Augustine’s “De Civitate Dei” or “City of God” and dates back to the 8th century. Some manuscripts are also in the collections of British Library, which preserves several significant Augustine manuscripts, including Royal MS 7 C. vii, containing Augustine’s “Confessions” and “De Trinitate” (On the Trinity), and Harley MS 2803, which contains a collection of his sermons.
Following St. Augustine’s death in 430, his remains were initially laid to rest in Hippo Regius (modern-day Annaba, Algeria). However, during the Vandal invasions of North Africa in the 5th century, his relics were transported to Sardinia for protection. Eventually, the bones found their way to Pavia, where they have remained since the 8th century. The tomb in the Basilica of San Pietro in Ciel d’Oro in Pavia houses an intricately crafted reliquary containing St. Augustine’s skull, along with bones, which are believed to be his. Additionally, numerous artistic representations of St. Augustine, both in paintings and sculptures, can be found within the basilica.
The remaining manuscripts of Saint Augustine of Hippo’s works offers an insight into the mind of this influential theologian and philosopher. Through ongoing efforts in preservation, digitization, and scholarly study, we can continue to unlock the treasures preserved within these manuscripts.
Resources:
Brown, Peter. Augustine of Hippo: A Biography. University of California Press, 2000.
.jpg){kind=link}