Digital Palaeography

The Vercelli Book – An Old English Codex

Flora Sophie Lemburg

From all Old English manuscripts, the Vercelli Book is surely one of the most mysterious. During the Spring School 2024 I had the chance to visit the Vercelli Book in person, in the Capitulary Library of Vercelli, fulfilling one of my dreams as a scholar of medieval English. During this entry, I would like to take you on a little journey discovering the many peculiarities of the Vercelli Book.

What is Old English?

Before we get started, we need to talk a bit about medieval English in order to understand what is exactly written in the Vercelli Book and why it is so special. When someone speaks about medieval English, they basically mean the language that was spoken in what is now (roughly speaking) England before the fifteenth century – think ‘before Shakespeare’. Scholars of English literature will divide periods of the English language and its literature a bit further:

Old English (sometimes also called Anglo-Saxon): 600-1100 CE
Middle English: 1100-1500 CE
Early Modern English: 1500-1700 CE
Modern English: 1700-1900 CE
Present Day English: 1900 –

For us, Old English is the most interesting one, as this is the language that is primarily written in the Vercelli Book. Old English is a Germanic language, closely related to other Germanic languages such as German or Dutch. There are also traces of Scandinavian languages detectable, especially in late Old English, which can be attributed to the contact between the natives of England and the vikings (seafaring people coming from modern Scandinavia and Russia). After the Norman Conquest (1066 CE), French became the predominant influence on the English language, and it developed into what we now refer to as ‘Middle-English’.

Old English and its Codices

Now, there is a lot written in Old English. Charters, liturgical texts, and, of course, stories. These narratives were mainly written in verse form. If people talk about Old English literature, they generally mean verse. All that we have left in this category – we assume that there was a lot more literature that is now lost to us – is kept in four Old English codices. A codex is a book made from manuscripts, basically the precursor to our modern book. Regarding Old English, there is the Nowell Codex(shelf mark: Cotton MS Vitellius A XV), which is kept in the British Library in London. It contains probably the most famous Old English narrative, Beowulf, as well as a biblical retelling called Judith, and some other texts. Then there is the Junius Manuscript(MS Junius 11), kept in the Bodleian Library in Oxford, which contains some more biblical retellings, such as Genesis, Exodus, and Daniel. The third codex is the Exeter Book (Exeter Cathedral Library MS 3501) which can be found in Exeter. This holds shorter and longer works of verse, such as the poem Juliana by the poet Cynewulf, and several elegies and riddles. Last but not least, the fourth codex is our Vercelli Book, containing Christian poems and homilies written in a mix of prose and verse. This codex is not kept in the UK but has its home in the Capitulary Library of Vercelli, Italy, and has been there since at least the twelfth century. This location of an Old English manuscript in Northern Italy makes the Vercelli book so intriguing. How did it get there? Why has it been there, continuously, for such a long time?

We might find some hints in the manuscript itself…

Palaeography

The Vercelli Book consists of 135 folios (pages) made from parchment. This might seem fairly straightforward, but as it often happens in medieval studies, it is more complicated than that. The first 104 folios are primarily made from calfskin, in palaeography we call this kind of parchment vellum. On folio 105r (r refers to Latin recto, so the front of folio 105), the layout of the text changes.

Vercelli, Cathedral Library, MS 117, f. 104v-105r

Now the text takes up more space on the page. Why? One could assume that the scribe ran out of parchment. When he received additional leaves, he made more use of the space he had, maybe conscious of the likelihood that he could run out of parchment again. This theory is supported by the fact that from folio 105 onward we do not have vellum, but parchment made from sheep or goat’s skin.
The Vercelli Book was written in one hand, meaning that only a single scribe copied the entirety of the text, compiling the content from at least five different sources. The script itself is called Anglo-Saxon square minuscule. There are three different types of Anglo-Saxon minuscule, round, square, and pointed, corresponding to three phases in the development of this script. Anglo-Saxon square minuscule had its beginnings from c. 920 CE and lasted throughout the tenth century before changing into its round phase at the turn of the century. Most of the manuscripts described above are written in square minuscule.

Finding out more information about this manuscript and its palaeographical features proves to be difficult at times because of the scholars who came before us. They have tried to ‘recover’ parts of the manuscript, often with destructive consequences. When the Vercelli Book was first rediscovered in Italy by Friedrich Bluhme in 1822, it was quickly sought after by other scholars and first transcribed by C. Maier. During his transcription in 1833-34, Maier tried to make parts of the texts more visible by applying certain chemical reagents.

This was a common practice in the nineteenth century among scholars, the idea being to recover text that had faded over time. Maier used gallnut tincture, basically a mixture of gallic and tannic acids, to recover the iron gall ink that was used by the scribe of the Vercelli Book. The idea was that these acids would react with the ferrous traces of the erased script to ‘return’ some of the original colour and visibility. Sadly, the use of these reagents has done more damage than recovery and most of the folios treated with gallnut tincture have been grossly damaged. Nevertheless, with new techniques such as MSI (multi-spectral imaging) one can still recover parts of the texts through images made with various different wave-lengths, making text visible that cannot be identified with the naked eye.

Why Italy?

While there are many theories about the provenance of the Vercelli Book and its final location – none of which is definitely proven – I wish to introduce one that appears most likely to me. Professor Winfried Rudolf has argued that an important hint to the location-question of the Vercelli Book is the German bishop Leo, who was Bishop of Vercelli from 999 CE. He was one of the most learned scholars in Europe of his time and a great bibliophile. Therefore, Leo could be someone who was involved with the Vercelli Book if its arrival coincided with his time in Vercelli. Furthermore, he was able to speak and write Old Saxon, a medieval Germanic language closely related to Old English. We know that these languages are very close to each other because of the Old English copy of the poem Genesis, of which parts exist also in Old Saxon. Placed next to each other, one can see that the texts are remarkably similar linguistically, with only minor orthographic differences. Thus, we can assume that Leo was also able to understand and read Old English, which makes him an excellent audience for the Christian content that we can find in the Vercelli Book. One final piece of evidence is the decoration of the manuscript, which is sparse but shows an interesting connection to Leo. On one page we can find a small image underneath a text depicting a lion, on another page a decorated initial probably also showing a lion’s head. In the Metrum Leonis, a text written by Leo – not to be found in the Vercelli Book – Leo portrays himself as a lion. Coincidence?

Decorated inital on f. 106v (http://vbd.humnet.unipi.it/beta2/#doc=Homily-19&page=VB_fol_106v)

Texts of the Vercelli Book: The Dream of the Rood and Elene

Luckily, some of the more famous texts of the Vercelli Book have remained mostly unharmed by the aforementioned reagents. Students of Old English will be aware of the Christian poem Dream of the Rood, fewer might know the poem Elene. While these names are now the standard titles for these texts, they are actually not recorded in the manuscript.

f. 121r (http://vbd.humnet.unipi.it/beta2/#doc=Elene&page=VB_fol_121r)

Both texts just start with their first line, the only indication that this is a different text than the previous one is the large, decorated initial. The titles were added by later scholars who first analysed these texts in the early nineteenth century. The Dream of the Rood is essentially a dream vision. We hear first how someone dreams, after all ‘reord berend’ (speech bearers) went to sleep. This person dreams of a tree, which is a ‘syllicre treow’ (a most splendid tree). This tree is not only very big, but also decorated with gold and gems. At some point this tree starts talking – students will then wonder whether they have mistranslated something – and the tree introduces itself as the tree from which the cross was made on which Jesus Christ was crucified. The tree/cross – rood is an archaic term for cross – then retells the crucifixion from its perspective, depicting Christ as a warrior who sacrifices himself in order to triumph over death. The poem is a fascinating combination of concepts from Christianity and ideas from pre-Christian belief-systems of Germanic-speaking regions.
The poem Elene is also rooted in Christianity but centres around a female saint, Saint Helena. This is Empress Helena, mother of Constantine the Great who introduced Christianity to the Roman Empire in the early fourth century. According to the legend recounted in Elene, which is an adaptation of the Judas Cyriacus legend, Helena/Elene travels to Jerusalem to find the true cross (the cross on which Jesus was crucified). Of course she is successful in her endeavours, making her the patron saint of archaeologists. If anyone is ever looking for a fierce female character in Old English, I suggest taking a look at Elene and her colleagues Judith and Juliana (both characters in their own Old English poems, Judith and Juliana).

Of course there are many more texts in the Vercelli Book, such as Andreas and Soul and Body. If you are now excited to learn more about the Vercelli Book and its contents, I suggest to start here where you can find the manuscript fully digitised. Maybe you can solve the mystery of the Vercelli Book!

Bibliography:

Bock, Oliver. ‘C. Maier’s Use of a Reagent in the Vercelli Book’. The Library 16, no. 3 (2015): 249–81.

Rabin, Ira, Hahn, Oliver, Easton, Roger, Knox, Keyth T., Boydston, Ken, Heyworth, G., … Phelps, Michael. (2015). Initial inspection of reagent damage to the Vercelli Book. Comparative Oriental Manuscript Studies Bulletin, 1(1), 34–45. http://doi.org/10.25592/uhhfdm.377

Roberts, Jane. Guide to Scripts Used in English Writings up to 1500. Liverpool University Press, 2015. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1gn6bd5. Accessed 20 Mar. 2024.

Rudolf, Winfried. “On the Italian Provenance of the Vercelli Book.” In Manuscripts in the Anglo-Saxon Kingdoms: Cultures and Connections, edited by Claire Breay and Joanna Story, 154–167. Dublin: Four Courts, 2021.

Wittmann Zollinger, Cynthia. ‘Cynewulf´s “Elene” and the Patterns of the Past’. University of Illinois Press, The Journal of English and Germanic Philology, 103, no. No 2 (April 2004): 180–96.

The Hidden Medieval Gem in the Lombard Countryside: The Monastery Complex of Certosa di Pavia

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Birds-eye view of the Certosa di Pavia monastery.
Source: https://www.costigliola.it/portfolio_item/lavori-di-manutenzione-monastero-della-certosa-di-pavia/

The Double Origin Story

The Certosa has two origin stories. One of them follows the narrative that the Certosa was a selfless and devout gift from the first Duke of Milan, Gian Galeazzo Visconti, to his deeply religious wife Caterina Visconti. This story claims that the Duke’s second wife Caterina had been advised by a servant of God, monk Stefano Macone, to build a charterhouse in the area where the Certosa now stands. And because the duke was known for his kindness he ordered the Certosa to be built at the bequest of Caterina, at the turn of the fifteenth century. Though a romantic and pious origin story, it doesn’t hold up when we look at the character and actions of the first Duke of Milan: Gian Galeazzo Visconti.

An image from a missal that portrays both duke Gian Galeazzo Visconti (left), and Caterina Visconti (right) kneeling. Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Caterina_Visconti.jpg

In reality duke Gian Galeazzo Visconti was an incredibly ambitious man, who would use ruthless force to see his dreams come true. Upon the death of his father, Galeazzo II Visconti in 1378, Gian Galeazzo became lord of Pavia and quickly started expanding his realm both through conquest and through diplomacy. One of these instances of insatiable conquest comes in the form of Gian Galeazzo betraying his own family by marriage in order to consolidate his rule. On 6 May 1385, Gian Galeazzo Visconti went on a supposedly innocent mission of pilgrimage to Milan with the intention of meeting Caterina Visconti’s father, as well as his uncle Bernabò Visconti, who welcomed Gian Galazzo to his home in Milan. However, the true intention of this pilgrimage was to usurp the holdings of Bernabò and imprison him and his relatives. This coup d’état was what eventually led to him assuming the title “Duke of Milan” and acquiring the power and wealth to build the Certosa di Pavia. But through his actions we can see that the piety and the close familial connections of Gian Galeazzo weren’t the reasons for his desire to build the Certosa in the first place. It was most likely the strategic location of the Certosa that convinced him, since it would act as a mid-way point between the two influential cities of Pavia and Milan. Another reason may well have been a sense of prestige upon undertaking and funding such an ambitious and influential project.

The territorial holdings of the Visconti family upon the death of Gian Galeazzo Visconti.
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Massima_espansione_Viscontea.png

The Construction of the Certosa

A decade after Gian Galeazzo’s coup d’état, the project of building the Certosa was entrusted to Bernardo da Venezia. Because he was undertaking the project of building the Duomo di Milano at the same time, a sort of competition developed between the two major religious buildings. The construction of the Certosa started out with the laying of the first slab, which was an important event not only because it marked the birth of the Certosa, but also because it assembled the people who attended the event and who laid the first pieces. The laying of the first foundation stone on 27 August 1396 was attended by the most important individuals in the Duchy of Milan. This list included members of the nobility, the Bishop of Pavia, who consecrated the event, notables from the other Italian duchies, members of the recently founded University of Pavia, and the duke of Milan himself – Gian Galeazzo Visconti – who placed the first slab. This scene is immortalized within the Certosa’s church portal.

The attendees of the laying of the first foundational slab of Certosa di Pavia.
Source: https://www.certosadipavia.it/storia/

The plans of how the Certosa was to be built depended on the religious order that was going to run the monastery. The monastery was to be a charterhouse, according to the Carthusian model. This meant that the Certosa was to be built with two cloisters, one larger (great cloister), and one smaller (small cloister), with cells surrounding the cloister(s) where the Carthusian monks lived. But since the Certosa also acted as a place of residence for the duke, a ducal palace was incorporated into the complex, together with a large church.

The different sections that make up the Certosa di Pavia.
Source: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233851975_The_TIVAL_project

Though work on the Certosa had begun and continued for multiple years, the building progress was disappointingly slow. By comparison, the rival project of the Duomo di Milano had already been erected as a recognizable structure, while the Certosa’s foundation was still being placed. At the same time, the Carthusian monks were either forced to live in a bare cloister, or to move to other locations to continue their cloistered practices.

The construction of the Certosa came to a sudden halt when Duke Gian Galeazzo Visconti died in 1402 and funding for the project died with him. It was only in 1412, when Gian Galeazzo’s successor Filippo Maria Visconti came to power, that new funding enabled the construction to recommence, this time under architect Giovanni Solari who, like his predecessors, also helped build the Duomo di Milano. It was during the reign of Filippo Maria that much of the Certosa was built: the refectory, library, small cloister, and vestibule were mostly or fully completed and furnished at this time.

The construction of the Certosa was halted once again upon the death of Filippo Maria Visconti in 1447. With it, the Visconti realm was thrust into disorder. It was only when the Sforza dynasty came to power a decade later that construction continued once again. Francesco Sforza, who had no “true” claim to the Visconti lands, wished to consolidate and legitimize his rule and so ordered the Certosa to be worked on once again. The Certosa was finally finished under the Sforza in 1491, with the completion of the church façade. Though plagued by a shortage of marble, the full Certosa di Pavia complex was finished on 16 October 1494, almost a hundred years after the first foundation slab had been placed.

However, it wasn’t until 1550 that the exterior of the Certosa was remodelled to look as it does today.

The Certosa complex seen from the south.
Source: https://www.culturalheritageonline.com/location-1370_Museo-della-Certosa-di-Pavia—Palazzo-Ducale—Virtual-Tour-360%C2%B0.php

The Church

The feature that stands out the most in the Certosa di Pavia complex is the magnificent church building. It was the last building to be completed, most likely because of the competition between the Certosa and the Duomo for the necessary marble required to finish the works. In the end the church was able to obtain the resources and was adorned with an incredibly detailed Gothic church-facade.

After 1550, several spires were added to the church building.

The view of the Certosa from behind the church building, with a view of the spires.
Source: https://www.certosadipavia.it

Upon entering the interior of the church we see some of the finest work of Italian artisans of the time.

Looking up at the ceiling of the central nave, we see that it is made up of intersecting arches and elaborate tile patterns, with gold inlays where the arches intersect. In addition, a star-like pattern and blue background runs horizontally along both the nave and the aisle sections. Above the transept of the church we find a modest dome that is decorated by a fresco that is divided into eight sections, each portraying a different image.

The dome and its fresco decoration.
Source: https://www.visitpavia.com/it/certosa-di-pavia

The aisles accommodate seven side chapels in total, each of them containing works of art that are famous in their own right. The transept of the church is closed off from the public by a metal fence, but on the right side it is still possible to see Gian Galeazzo Visconti immortalized. The image shows an image of him and his family gifting the Certosa to the Virgin Mary, with his tomb standing immediately underneath.

The Visconti family dedicating the Certosa to Mother Mary.
Source: https://www.bridgemanimages.com/de/ambrogio-da-fossano-il-bergognone-c-1460-1523/gian-galeazzo-visconti-and-sons-offering-the-model-of-the-charterhouse-to-the-virgin-mary-1500-1522/fresco/asset/3496308

In the chancel of the church, in accordance with Carthusian tradition, the choir and the altar are hidden away form the public. The choir stalls have incredibly detailed wood inlays. Tthe walls surrounding the altar are completely covered with works of art: not a single space remains that is not covered with either frescoes or sculptures.

The main altar framed by the choir stalls.
Source: https://www.paesaggioitaliano.eu/lombardia/certosa-di-pavia

Lastly, the old sacristy contains a masterpiece by Baldassarre degli Embriachi: a triptych that is made mainly out of hippopotamus teeth and turtle bone. Two and a half meters in both height and width, it ambitiously portrays the life of Jesus, John the Baptist, and John the Evangelist.

The Embriachi triptych in the Certosa di Pavia.
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Trittico_Completo.jpg

The Small Cloister

The small cloister is, as the name indicates, the smallest part of the Certosa di Pavia complex. Due to its size, the basic structure of the cloister had already been completed by 1402, but the decorations were only completed in 1460. Though it takes up little space in the complex, it is a central and important meeting point for people living in the Certosa, since it is bordered by the church, ducal palace, and great cloister. The roof of the small cloister had been covered in copper plate, but during the Napoleonic wars it was taken off to be melted down and made into cannons.

The Great Cloister

The great cloister is the accommodation area for the Certosa. This is where the Carthusian monks spent their lives living in solitude and silence. At first the great cloister included 23 cells, but in the sixteenth century this was expanded to a total of 36 cells. Some monks lived in actual houses, whose roofs are visible rising above the individual cells. The structure of the great cloister had already been built in 1463, with the finishing decoration being being completed by 1480. The large lawn in the middle of cloister was used for the monks to plant flowers and medicinal plants if needed. The northern corner of the lawn was used as a burial ground before the eighteenth century.

The Ducal Palace

Even though nowadays the building in between the church and the small cloister in the south is called the ducal palace, this locations was only occasionally used as a summer residence by the lords in the region. It is only in the early-to-mid 17th century that the construction of the ducal palace as we see it today, was built in the baroque style. Today the ducal palace primarily houses the Certosa di Pavia museum.

Later History of The Certosa

After the Certosa was officially finished with the celebratory festivities in 1494. In the 16th century as mentioned before, the exterior of the buildings in the Certosa complex had been further embellished with detail, such as the continued work on the church facade, and the interiors had been additionally furnished. At the same time we get manuscripts being produced in the Certosa, most notably the missals and chorals.

A choral from the Certosa di Pavia, depicted in the decoration is Gian Galeazzo Visconti.
Source: https://www.artribune.com/arti-visive/archeologia-arte-antica/2021/04/certosa-pavia-restauro-graduale-miniato/

And in the 17th century we have the ducal palace built, this becoming the most “golden-age” of the Certosa di Pavia seen in its most complete, though issues about completing the church facade were still ongoing. In the 18th century a change occurred, artworks were still being produced to further contribute to the already extravagant complex, but the power of the church started being undermined with the arrival of Enlightenment thought. Because of this the Certosa did not have as much funding as before, and not only that, the Carthusian order that had been inhabiting the complex since its beginnings, had been replaced by the Cistercians, and then not soon after changed ownership to the Carmelites. All the meanwhile in the late 18th century northern Italy was being invaded by Napoleon and bringing secular changes to the region, further diminishing the power of the church. During this time the collections of artwork of the Certosa was looted, and resources for the war effort were stripped away from the Certosa’s buildings.

In the early 19th century the Certosa was rid of the French, and in the mid-19th century the Carthusians were once again allowed to return to the complex. But this was a short lived residence as in 1880 they were once again told to leave as the state of the Kingdom of Italy had acquired the complex. In the early 20th century, the Certosa was in desperate need of reconstruction still recovering from the pillaging at the hands of Napoleonic troops a century before, however during the First World War restorations were halted. They are quickly continued after the war, and the Certosa is given back once again to the Carthusians, while Italy falls under fascism with Benito Mussolini leading the country. Benito Mussolini ends up visiting the Certosa complex in 1932 the same year the Carthusian order had returned back to the Certosa.

Benito Mussolini visiting the Certosa di Pavia, and meeting with the father prior.
Source: https://www.certosadipavia.it/

The Certosa and fascist dictator Benito Mussolini end up having an interesting relationship after the war. After Mussolini had been killed, he was buried in the Musocco cemetery in Milan, but in April 1946 the grave had signs of being recently dug up, and it was found that the corpse of Mussolini was not there.

An image of a recently dug up grave which housed the corpse of Benito Mussolini.
Source: https://www.passaggilenti.com/corpo-del-duce-storia-trafugamento/

A couple of months later a lead in the investigation was discovered, where two Franciscan monks, Father Zucca and Father Parini were brought up by a neo-fascist suspect Domenico Leccisi in an interrogation. Through that the investigation is led to the Certosa di Pavia on August 12th 1946, where the corpse of the fascist dictator is found on the premises encased in two rubber bags and a wooden coffin. It is later found out that the two Fathers did not have any involvement in the hiding of the body and were probably used as scapegoats by Domenico Leccisi and his neo-fascist group who had actually dug up the body.

After this incident the Carthusians are replaced by the Carmelites again, yet they are then replaced by the Cistercians soon after in 1968, the religious order that inhabits the Certosa di Pavia till this day. The last exciting story that happens in the Certosa is the stealing of the Embriachi Triptych in the old sacristy in 1984, which was intended to be sold abroad, the perpetrators are imprisoned soon after and one of the oldest pieces of the Certosa is returned back without suffering any serious damage.

Bibliography

https://www.certosadipavia.it/

Carla Simone, Marco Martini, et al., ‘The TIVAL project: Integrating Multidisciplinary Perspectives’ (2012).

https://naviglireloading.eu/curiosita/la-certosa-di-pavia/

https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/464453?searchField=All&sortBy=Relevance&ft=Baldassare+degli+Embriachi&offset=0&rpp=20&pos=2

https://www.passaggilenti.com/corpo-del-duce-storia-trafugamento/

http://www.paviaedintorni.it/temi/eventi_file/eventi_storici_file/eventistorici_furtotrittico.htm

https://www.artribune.com/arti-visive/archeologia-arte-antica/2021/04/certosa-pavia-restauro-graduale-miniato/

https://www.visitpavia.com/it/certosa-di-pavia

https://www.quatarobpavia.it/certosa-di-pavia-curiosita-e-leggende/

eManuSkript: New project to create digital teaching tools in palaeography funded at the University of Göttingen

Group of people sitting around a round table in the middle of a room filled with bookcases. — Göttingen students working with manuscripts at the Vercelli Spring School.

A project by Dr. Anna Dorofeeva at the Institute for Digital Humanities in Göttingen has recently been awarded €400,000 in the Freiraum 2023 competition by the Stiftung Innovation in der Hochschullehre. Over the next two years, a team of historians and programmers, working in close collaboration with BA and MA students, will develop a range of teaching and learning tools for manuscript studies, including palaeography.

There exist very few digital tools suitable for teaching the full range of skills necessary for working with medieval codices. Access to culturally important manuscript sources is restricted to those with specialized subject knowledge, which creates significant challenges for students. In addition, the immense potential of the millions of manuscript images available in interoperable IIIF format has yet to be fully exploited in teaching. This project aims to develop a series of digital tools that will make use of these images and of the expertise available in Göttingen. The tools will include apps for measuring, selecting and modifying scripts; evaluating page layout; and working with manuscript bindings. Other apps and extensive tutorials are planned. The project will also undertake further development of pre-existing tools, including improvements to applications for multispectral imaging, for digital editing and annotation, and for forms of image storytelling. Guided student participation will be key to the development of these tools, which means that they will be rooted in practical requirements, conceived by the users themselves, and suitable for both classroom and research use.

The eManuSkript project runs for two years from 1 April 2024. A website with more information is being developed. In the meantime, please get in touch with the team members if you have any questions or if you wish to collaborate.

Disticha Catonis: Greek Antiquity and Latin Learning

The Disticha Catonis is not, contrary to its name, a classical text. Though it was originally attributed to the famously conservative Roman senator Cato the Elder (or possibly his son, Cato the Younger), its true author is unknown, but probably lived in the 3^rd or 4^th century CE, up to four hundred years later than either Cato. However, this Latin text was extremely popular in classrooms throughout the Middle Ages and beyond, its two-line hexameters providing moral advice and guidance to diligent students who often translated the text into their own vernacular languages.

Such a translation accompanies the 15^th-century copy of the text held by the Niedersächsische Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek Göttingen. The Anglicana script with its looping flourishes and long descenders records each couplet of the Disticha Catonis (sometimes imperfectly) and pairs it with an English translation, which is often several lines longer than the original Latin couplet. In addition to the Disticha, this manuscript contains several other texts within the same binding. Altogether, these texts form a motley collection in several different hands, including genealogical tables, copied letters between Pope Leo and King Charles of France, and a listing of Eastbury sheep farmers, just to name a few. Most of these hands, however, appear to be roughly contemporary—except for a few striking lines at the end of the text.

Several students gather around a manuscript during the 2023 Göttingen International Palaeography Summer School to examine the text and illustrations.

On the very last pages of the manuscript, in a darker ink and later hand, a new language appears—a few phrases of Greek at the bottom of the final folio. This is the only Greek in the manuscript, and its appearance is both exciting and startling. While Latin remained an important language, especially for Western literature, scholarship, and diplomacy, for centuries after it was no longer the lingua franca, ancient Greek language and literature was much more neglected until the Renaissance turned to an idealized vision of classical antiquity as a model for cultural excellence.

The recto of the final folio with text in the Göttingen copy of the
*Disticha Catonis*, with two lines of Greek finishing the page.

But Greek wasn’t totally unknown in those intervening centuries, and as interest in ancient literature, culture, and art rose again, it became a subject of study once more, appearing not only in schoolroom texts, but also sometimes scrawled in the margins of other works—like here. A closer look at this handful of lines gives a glimpse into one person’s engagement with Latin, Greek, and the relationship between language, learning, and literature.

The first pair of Greek lines (74r) reads: πολλα μέταξυ πελεῖ κυλιχος | κ[α]ὶ κείλεος αχρ[ου]. Once the abbreviations have been deciphered, the sentence is perfectly recognizable Greek—except for the word κείλεος, which simply doesn’t exist. But this puzzle is easily solved when we realize that the phrase is an ancient proverb, which has been attributed without evidence to the both the Greek writer Palladas and the more famous epic poet Homer, but first appears as an already well-known saying in the 2^nd-century Attic Nights of Aulus Gellius. Locating this source reveals the anonymous writer’s error—the word κείλεος should actually be χείλεος. This in turn leads us to a complete translation—“Many things come between the cup and the topmost lip,” or, as Paton translates more idiomatically, “There’s many a slip ’twixt the cup and the lip.”

But why the mistake? In fact, the Greek letters kappa (κ) and chi (χ) sound quite similar to the English ear, so mistaking one for the other would be quite easy, especially if the writer was recalling the lines from memory or listening to someone else dictate them, rather than copying directly from another written source. Of course, there’s no way to be certain that’s what happened; the writer could also have copied from a source with an error or misread the original text. Still, this small slip in otherwise very good Greek suggests that our writer knew the language well—but perhaps not perfectly.

A similar conclusion can be drawn from the Greek on 74v, which reads: φιλωτιμος πατὴρ | ὅν φιλεῖ θεος αποθνήσκει νέος. The first line, “honor-loving father,” is fairly generic and could be equally fitting in an ancient context or a later one. The second, however, quite nearly matches a famous quotation from a fragment of Menander: ὃν οἱ θεοὶ φιλοῦσιν ἀποθνῄσκει νέος, meaning “he whom the gods love dies young.” Once again, our unknown writer has not gotten the quote exactly right—the article οἱ is missing, and we have a singular verb and subject (φιλεῖ θεος) instead of the original plural (θεοὶ φιλοῦσιν).

The verso of the
*Disticha Catonis*’ final folio at the end of the text.

The writer is clearly familiar with the Menander quotation, but there are small errors. The writer might have just forgotten to add the article, and we may also note the switched positions of subject and verb in the phrases φιλεῖ θεος and θεοὶ φιλοῦσιν. This is not a grammatical mistake, but not a perfect quotation either, especially given the change from singular forms to plural ones. But that change might not be a mistake at all. In the first line, φιλωτιμος πατὴρ is singular—perhaps the writer changed θεοὶ φιλοῦσιν to φιλεῖ θεος on purpose so that it agreed with the singular subject φιλωτιμος πατὴρ, intentionally changing “gods” to one God—the honor-loving Father. Is this a reflection of the cultural shift from Menander’s polytheism to Christian monotheism? It’s impossible to know for certain whether this is a clever adaptation of Menander’s original text or a misremembered quotation.

Either way, taken together, these two bits of Greek do make it clear that the writer was familiar not only with the language (note the accent marks included in the phrases), but with ancient Greek literature as well. Though there are minor mistakes, this is no newbie student practicing his alphabet. It’s also worth noting that these quotations fit the spirit of the original text, the Disticha Catonis. Though other texts fill the pages between the Disticha and the later Greek, these short additions are just the sort of quick, quippy wisdom encapsulated by the Disticha Catonis. Thus, they make a fitting finish to this delightful collection of texts!

You never know what you might find in the margins of a manuscript (or an incunable), but the little notes and details found there can add richness and depth to our understanding of the texts themselves, and the people who worked with them. Göttingen’s copy of the Disticha Catonis has passed through many hands over the centuries since it was first produced, but every reader had their own story, and the faintest traces of those stories can still be found within the pages if we look closely.

Bibliography

The Greek Anthology, Volume IV: Book 10: The Hortatory and Admonitory Epigrams. Book 11: The Convivial and Satirical Epigrams. Book 12: Strato’s Musa Puerilis. Translated by W. R. Paton. Loeb Classical Library 85. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1918.

Menander. Aspis. Georgos. Dis Exapaton. Dyskolos. Encheiridion. Epitrepontes. Edited and translated by W. G. Arnott. Loeb Classical Library 132. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979.

St. Augustine of Hippo, his works and remains

mariannesaar

Saint Augustine of Hippo, also known as Augustine of Thagaste (354-430), is one of the most influential figures in Christian history. The tale of his life journey from a wayward youth to a renowned bishop and theologian is a remarkable one, that is also deeply relevant to a modern reader. This blog post is a re-qorked version of the presentation that I did in Pavia in March 2023 for the purpose of the Göttingen Palaeography Spring School. The topics covered in this post will range from the life of Saint Augustine and his early years to his lasting legacy, as well as where he is laid to rest.

Saint Augustine in the Nuremberg Chronicle
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nuremberg_chronicles_-_Augustine_(CXXXVIr).jpg

Early Years and Education

Augustine was born on November 13, 354, in Thagaste, a small town in what is now Algeria. He was raised in a Christian family where his mother, Saint Monica, played a pivotal role in his spiritual upbringing. Augustine received an education, studying rhetoric and philosophy in Carthage, where he developed a passion for intellectual pursuits. However, despite his Christian background, Augustine embarked on a rebellious journey in his early adulthood. He embraced a hedonistic lifestyle, not only seeking pleasure and worldly success, but also starting a family and having children with his mistress. The turning point in Augustine’s life was the conversion to Christianity, which came to be through an encounter with Saint Ambrose, Bishop of Milan. Influenced by Ambrose’s eloquence and his study of the Bible, Augustine was profoundly moved by the message of Christ’s love and redemption. In 387, at the age of 33, he underwent a dramatic conversion experience, symbolized by his baptism by Ambrose in Milan. This resulted in Augustine leaving his children and mistress to pursue Christian enlightenment.

Augustine as Bishop and Theologian

Following his conversion to Christianity, Augustine devoted himself to a life of service in the Christian Church. He became a priest and eventually a bishop. Throughout his life as a bishop, he spent most of his time preaching, writing extensive works, and engaging in debates defending orthodox Christian teachings. His works covered a wide range of subjects, most importantly theology, philosophy, ethics, and the nature of God, which have had a profound impact on Western thought and continue to be widely studied and revered. Among his most notable works are the “Confessions”, an introspective autobiography reflecting on his spiritual journey and struggles; “City of God”, a work addressing the relationship between Christianity and secular society; and “On Christian Doctrine”, a guide to interpreting scripture and teachings of the faith.

Although many of his original manuscripts have been lost or destroyed, some manuscripts still survive. The Corpus Augustinianum Veronense, which is located in the Biblioteca Capitolare in Verona, Italy, contains various works of Augustine. Notable among them is Codex Veronensis, which includes the oldest known complete copy of Augustine’s “De Civitate Dei” or “City of God” and dates back to the 8^th century. Some manuscripts are also in the collections of British Library, which preserves several significant Augustine manuscripts, including Royal MS 7 C. vii, containing Augustine’s “Confessions” and “De Trinitate” (On the Trinity), and Harley MS 2803, which contains a collection of his sermons.

British Library Harley MS 3080 St Augustine, Confessiones
https://manuscrits-france-angleterre.org/view3if/pl/ark:/81055/vdc_100059346555.0x000001/f17

The Remains of St. Augustine of Hippo:

Following St. Augustine’s death in 430, his remains were initially laid to rest in Hippo Regius (modern-day Annaba, Algeria). However, during the Vandal invasions of North Africa in the 5th century, his relics were transported to Sardinia for protection. Eventually, the bones found their way to Pavia, where they have remained since the 8th century. The tomb in the Basilica of San Pietro in Ciel d’Oro in Pavia houses an intricately crafted reliquary containing St. Augustine’s skull, along with bones, which are believed to be his. Additionally, numerous artistic representations of St. Augustine, both in paintings and sculptures, can be found within the basilica.

San Pietro in Ciel d’Oro (Pavia) https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:San_Pietro_in_Ciel_d%27Oro_(Pavia)

Conclusion

The remaining manuscripts of Saint Augustine of Hippo’s works offers an insight into the mind of this influential theologian and philosopher. Through ongoing efforts in preservation, digitization, and scholarly study, we can continue to unlock the treasures preserved within these manuscripts.

Resources:

Brown, Peter. Augustine of Hippo: A Biography. University of California Press, 2000.

Chadwick, Henry. Augustine: A Very Short Introduction, Very Short Introductions (Oxford, 2001; online edn., Oxford Academic, 24 Sept. 2013), https://doi.org/10.1093/actrade/9780192854520.001.0001

Augustine. Confessions. Oxford University Press, 2008, pp 1-311.

Augustine. City of God. Penguin Classics, 2003.

Augustine. On Christian Doctrine. https://faculty.georgetown.edu/jod/augustine/ddc.html

The Basilica of San Pietro in Ciel d’Oro. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Pietro_in_Ciel_d%27Oro

The Catholic Encyclopedia. “St. Augustine of Hippo”. https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02084a.htm

Manuscripts:

London, British Library, Harley MS 3080. https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/st-augustine-confessions
Paris, Bibliothèque nationale de France, MS lat. 12204. https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/bnf-an-illuminated-copy-of-st-augustine-de-trinitate

Digital Palaeography Summer School – General description

The summer school in Digital Palaeography at the Göttingen University Institute for Digital Humanities is an intensive training course for graduate students from all around the world. It has been held every year since 2022 in the summer at the institute’s premises in Göttingen. In a two-week-long program, participating students learn about medieval Latin palaeography and digital approaches to manuscript studies, in both theoretical and practical sessions. With generous support from the Volkswagen Stiftung and in collaboration with the Göttingen State and University Library as well as the Herzog August Library Wolfenbüttel, the summer school covers all essential areas of digital palaeography at a state-of-the-art level. Its unique program means to support new researchers on their way to becoming future experts in palaeography and digital manuscript studies alike. Key areas that are covered in the summer school include palaeography and codicology, hyper- and multispectral imaging, text encoding with TEI XML, handwritten text recognition (HTR), digital editing, cataloguing, IIIF and digitisation standards, bookbinding, and more. Applications to the summer school are accepted from around February to May each year.

Light on a Living Text: MSI at Göttingen

Alexander Zawacki

Multispectral imaging is a non-invasive, non-destrucive method for recovering damaged, erased, or otherwise illegible text from cultural heritage objects such as manuscripts and documents. The setup is simple: two banks of LED lights , a camera, a filter wheel. At Göttingen, we use system designed and built by Phase One and operated by their Rainbow MSI software. This has the advantage of being portable, so that we can take the system with us during (for example) our Digital Paleography Spring School in Vercelli and Verona, allowing us to study precious manuscripts wherever they reside.

Digital images are taken in a series of discrete wavelengths of light, from the ultraviolet backwards through the rainbow to the infrared. The filter wheel enables us to squeeze more data of these wavelengths, or bands: we can, for example, illuminate a manuscript with ultraviolet, then use a filter to block out all the reflected light, capturing only the fluorescent light that the page itself is emitting. Or we can do the reverse, and capture only the reflected light. The goal is to obtain as much spectral data — light data — from each folio as possible.

Cod MS Syr 19c, a palimpsest from the collections of the University of Göttingen, as it appears to the naked eye.

This, though, is just the beginning of the process. It is very unlikely that any one image will reveal everything one would like to read on the page; none of them will show much more than standard UV imaging. To that end, we use a number of different programs including Hoku, ImageJ, and Harris Geospatial’s ENVI to process the data. In this stage we sort and sift, transform and analyze, using techniques like principal components analysis to enhance and isolate targeted areas of the text. When successful, this allows us to (for example) digitally fade out the overtext of a palimpsest while darkening and revealing the erased text below.

Multispectral imaging is a new and growing field. An increasing number of libraries and institutions are purchasing MSI systems, but there remain few programs for training users to capture and process the data these systems can obtain. Thanks to a grant from the Lower Saxony Ministry for Science and Culture (MWK), the University of Göttingen has been able not only to purchase an operate an MSI system of its own, but also to offer courses and training to students interested in learning about this burgeoning area of the digital humanities.

Ponte Coperto in the City of Pavia

dechkunnchhay

This blog post by Dechkunn Chhay is dedicated to the Ponte Coperto in Pavia, which Digital Palaeography students visited last year as part of the annual Spring School abroad.

The city of Pavia had been an important city throughout the Middle Ages. It was founded in the Roman period. Later on, Pavia became the capital of the Lombard Kingdoms until it was conquered by Charlemagne in 774 (Shahan & Macpherson, 1908). Throughout the Middle Ages, Pavia was an important city under the rule of the Holy Roman Empire. The city had seen the coronations of various Holy Roman Emperors, including Henry II (Benigni, 1911) and Frederick Babarrosa (Elliot, 2014), who would crown themselves as Kings of Italy there. Pavia had always been a strategic location for transportation and commerce. The city is situated at the intersection of the two fundamental trade routes of the Po Valley. Traders would transverse from the region along the Adriatic Sea, such as Venice, to the eastern regions of Italy, such as Milan and Genoa (Bertoni, 2013). Pavia was also a city that is situated along important pilgrim routes such as the “Via Francigena,” which connects the countries outside the Alps to Rome, as well as other holy sites such as Jerusalem and Santiago de Compostela (UNESCO). Ponte Coperto is one of the iconic landmarks that adorn the city of Pavia.

Source: Konki, 2016. Ponte Coperto. Available from: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/20160807-Pavia-002.jpg

Ponte Coperto, which literally means “Covered Bridge” in English, is one of the notable landmarks of Pavia. The bridge is 216 meters in length and crosses the Ticino River. There was a Roman bridge that was built within the vicinity of modern-day Ponte Coperto. Under Roman rule, Pavia was transformed from a settlement of the Papiria tribe into a city named “Ticinum” in 220 B.C.E. The bridge was possibly rebuilt during the reign of Augustus (Stenico, 1953). The blocks of granite from the Baveno quarries that were used as a material to build the Roman bridge still exist as one pillar under the remains of the medieval bridge. The remains of these pylons can still be seen today when the Ticino River is at low tide. Ponte Coperto has become one of the most iconic landmarks of Pavia, as the monument is seen in various artworks, including the frescoes in Saint Theodore’s Church, which were commissioned by Bernardino Lanzani in 1524 (Pavia e dintorni., n.d.-b).

Source: Romanoni, F., 2021. San Teodoro (Pavia)[Online]. Available from: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:San_teodoro.jpg

The bridge was restored in 860 C.E. on the order of Louis the German. Vessels from the Abbey of Bobbio were used in the restoration (Settia, 2021). Giovanni da Ferrara and Jacopo da Cozzo led the operation, which commenced in 1351 and was completed in 1354 (Pavia e dintorni., n.d.-a). In the Middle Ages, Ponte Coperto had ten irregular arches as well as two towers at both ends of the bridge, which were constructed for defense purposes (Settia, 2021). Other parts were later added to the bridge, including a portal of entry on Borgo Ticino’s side, which was built in 1599; a chapel in the centre of the bridge in honor of Saint John of Nepomuk in the 18th century; and an entrance portal, built by Carlo Armati in 1822 (Pavia e dintorni., n.d.-a). Saint John of Nepomuk was a Bohemian patron saint whose statue was erected in the chapel. The statue fell into the river after the Allies bombed Pavia. It was recovered by fishermen and is now kept in the chapel of the new bridge (Pavia e dintorni., n.d.-c.).

Source: Crispus, C. 2020. L’interno della Cappella di San Giovanni Nepomuceno a Pavia [Online]. Available from: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/Interno_della_Cappella_di_San_Giovanni_Nepomuceno_-_Pavia.jpg (left)

Ponte Coperto also has an oral legend that has been passed down for generations that says the bridge was built by the devil. On a foggy Christmas Eve in the year 999, a few pilgrims from Borgo Ticino wanted to cross the river to attend the midnight mass in town. The devil, disguised as a man, offered the pilgrims a ferry to cross the river. The devil pointed to a shadow of a bridge in the fog and told the pilgrims that he could turn the fog into a stone bridge in exchange for the first person who crossed it. The Archangel Michael, who was among the pilgrims, recognized the trick of the devil, and he accepted the deal. However, once the bridge was built, a goat crossed it first without the devil’s knowledge (Dooid Magazine, 2017).

Ponte Coperto was destroyed by Allied bombing during World War II in September 1944, which caused one arch of the bridge to collapse (Pavia e dintorni., n.d.-a). In the aftermath of the war, there were debates among governmental officials to decide whether the bridge should be demolished (Pavia e dintorni., n.d.-a). In 1948, the Ministry of Public Works decided to demolish it for fear that the damaged bridge would collapse and cause floods along the Ticino River, and in order to make way for the construction of the new bridge (Pavia e dintorni., n.d.-a). The reconstruction of the modern bridge was inaugurated in 1951 and was built 30 meters away from the old bridge (Pavia e dintorni., n.d.-a). The new Ponte Coperto consisted of only five arches, and the path is shorter as it is built perpendicular to the river. In addition, near the chapel of the modern bridge, a plaque dedicated to Albert Einstein was erected. It displays his remarks about the bridge during his time in Pavia, which stated:

An die schöne Brücke in Pavia habe ich oft gedacht

(“I often thought of the beautiful bridge in Pavia.”)

Albert Einstein had spent time in Pavia during his university break back in 1896 (Spizzi, n.d.).

Crispus, C. 2020. Una targa commemorativa di Albert Einstein nel Ponte Coperto a Pavia [Online]. Available from: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/Targa_commemorativa_di_Albert_Einstein_nel_Ponte_Coperto_-_Pavia.jpg

Bibliography

Benigni, U. (1911). Diocese of Pavia. In The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved from: http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11592b.htm

Bertoni, Laura (2013). Pavia alla fine del Duecento. Una società urbana fra crescita e crisi. Bologna: Clueb. p. 102. ISBN 9788849137569

DBpedia. Ticinum. (n.d.). https://dbpedia.org/page/Ticinum

Dooid Magazine (2017). The Bridge that Overlooks the Ticino. https://magazine.dooid.it/en/uncategorized/the-covered-bridge-that-overlooks-the-ticino/

Elliott, G. (2014). Representing Royal Authority at San Michele Maggiore in Pavia. Zeitschrift Für Kunstgeschichte, 77(2), p. 145–174. http://www.jstor.org/stable/43598662

Encyclopedia Britannica. (n.d.). Pavia | Italy. https://www.britannica.com/place/Pavia-Italy

Paesi Online (n.d.). Il Ponte Coperto di Pavia, il simbolo della città sul Ticino. Il Ponte Coperto Di Pavia, Il Simbolo Della Città Sul Ticino. https://www.paesionline.it/italia/monumenti-ed-edifici-storici-pavia/ponte-coperto.

Pavia e dintorni (n.d.-a). Monumenti di Pavia – Il ponte coperto. http://www.paviaedintorni.it/temi/arteearchitettura_file/artearchitettura_monumenti_file/monumentii_pontecoperto.htm

Pavia e dintorni (n.d.-b). Chiese Aperte Al Culto Entro Le Vecchie Mura: S. Teodoro. http://www.paviaedintorni.it/temi/arteearchitettura_file/artearchitettura_chiesepavia_file/APERTEALCULTO/descrizione_chiesemonasteripavia_santeodoro.htm

Pavia e dintorni.(n.d.-c). Particolare Di Pavia . . . Nascosta: San Giovanni Nepomuceno. http://www.paviaedintorni.it/temi/sguardo_nel_passato/nascosti/nascosto_13.htm

Settia, Aldo A. (2021). “Pavia carolingia: dal “monasterum Sigemarii” al Siccomario”. Bollettino della Società Pavese di Storia Patria (in Italian). p. 121: 183.

Shahan, T., & Macpherson, E. (1908). Charlemagne. In The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved from: http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03610c.htm

Stenico A. (1953), Relazione definitiva sui trovamenti archeologici nell’alveo del Ticino a Pavia, in Bollettino della Società pavese di storica patria. p.2.

UNESCO World Heritage Centre (n.d.). Via Francigena in Italy – UNESCO World Heritage Centre. https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6382/#:~:text=The%20Via%20Francigena%20in%20Italy,travelled%20from%20all%20over%20Europe.

Digital Palaeography in Göttingen

Anna Dorofeeva

Digital Palaeography team at the Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek Göttingen. From left to right, back row: Dr Mona Kirsch, Deputy Head of Manuscripts and Rare Books at the SUB; Prof. Dr. Winfried Rudolf, Professor of Medieval English Philology; Dr. Anna Dorofeeva, Lecturer in Digital Palaeography; Jakob Vogel, Student Assistant. Front Row: Prof. Dr. Martin Langner, Professor of Digital Humanities; Ruby Ku, Student Assistant.

Digital Palaeography is a special strand of teaching, learning and research at the Göttingen University Institute for Digital Humanities. Established in 2021, it aims to revive and consolidate palaeographical teaching and research in Göttingen and beyond. It focuses principally, though not exclusively, on Western Latin palaeography. Göttingen boasts rich resources for the study of medieval manuscripts: the collection of the Diplomatic Apparatus, the diverse collections of the Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek Göttingen, portable multispectral imaging equipment and the expertise of our Imaging Scientist, Alexander Zawacki, as well as the resources of the Institute for Digital Humanities.

Summer School 2022 student examining manuscripts at the Herzog August Bibliothek in Wolfenbüttel.

In order to train the next generation of manuscript scientists and palaeographers, we now teach a range of special subjects in both English and German. They include, at MA level, the Spring and Summer Schools in Palaeography and Imaging Science; Digital Tools for Manuscript Studies; Analysing Gothic Manuscripts Using Digital Imaging; and Digital Palaeography: Skills and Methods. At BA level, we teach, among others, TEI-XML, Digital Editions and how to work with Transkribus. From winter 2023, there will be a Digital Palaeography strand of the MA in Digital Humanities. Our students learn many skills, among them the history of scripts, transcription, multispectral imaging, the principles of neural networks, TEI-XML, IIIF, cataloguing and editing, fragmentology, and new digital tools (e.g. VCEditor, Transkribus). They have the opportunity to travel to libraries abroad – most recently, the archives in Vercelli and Verona – and to work with a broad range of sources in Göttingen, from charters, to manuscripts and manuscript fragments, to wax tablets. If you are interested in studying with us, read how to enrol for a course on our website.

Research strengths at Göttingen include fragmentology, early medieval palaeography, structural codicology and manuscript miscellanies. We welcome expressions of interest from research students and those looking for research collaborations!