Digital Palaeography

The Abbey of Saint Andrew

This text was written by the MA student Luana Moraes Costa.

The Basilica of Saint Andrew was founded between 1219 and 1227 on the initiative of Cardinal Guala Bicchieri, who had just returned from England where he had served as papal legate. Bicchieri received perpetual rights to the income of St. Andrew’s Church in Chesterton, near Cambridge, from King Henry III. With this financial support, he brought Augustinian canons from Saint-Victor in Paris to oversee the construction of the new abbey and pilgrim hospital along the Via Francigena, with the hospital’s construction commencing in 1224.

The French influence on the basilica’s construction was significant, particularly regarding the introduction of Gothic elements. Although the architect remains unknown, it is presumed that the Gothic lines of the new edifice were introduced by French clerics, including Abbot Thomas Gallus, previously a professor at the University of Paris.

Inside of the Basilica of Saint Andrew in Vercelli. Photo: Luana Moraes Costa, 2024.

The cloister of the basilica, built in the 13th century and later remodeled during the transition from the Vittorini to the Lateran canons, remains a crucial element of the monastery’s architecture.

Cloister of Saint Andrew’s Abbey in Vercelli. Photo: Luana Moraes Costa, 2024.

Inspired by Cistercian models, the presence of both Gothic and Romanesque influences in the basilica connects it to the architectural traditions of northern Italy and suggests the involvement of an Italian master in the design. The fusion of these architectural styles gives the basilica a unique identity and reflects the cultural and artistic exchanges that were prevalent during the construction period.

Vercelli played a very important role as a geopolitical crossroads during the construction of Saint Andrew’s Abbey. Situated along the Via Francigena, a major pilgrimage route connecting Canterbury to Rome, the city served as a meeting point for travelers, traders, and pilgrims from diverse backgrounds and cultures. This context of cultural exchange and interaction certainly influenced the basilica’s development and its significance as an architectural and religious landmark in the region.

Bibliography:

Italia.it. Basilica di Sant’Andrea. <https://www.italia.it/it/piemonte/vercelli/la-basilica-di-sant-adrea>
Sant’Andrea Verccelli Official Website. <https://santandreavercelli.com>
S. Baiocco, S. Castronovo, E. Pagella, Arte in Piemonte. Il Gotico, 2004, Priuli e Verlucca Editori, Ivrea, ISBN 88-8068-225-3.
G. Vergani, “L’Italia settentrionale. Le contaminazioni del Gotico”, in La Storia dell’Arte, Vol 5, cap. 13, 2006, Electa and La Biblioteca di Repubblica, Milan.
M. Cappellino, Il coro ligneo della basilica di S. Andrea. Agiografia Canonicale in un codice vercellese, 1989, Vercelli.

Towers of Pavia: A Glimpse into Northern Italy’s Medieval Heritage

In the heart of Pavia’s historic center, the towering remnants of a bygone era stand tall, bearing witness to the city’s rich medieval history. The noble towers of Pavia are a testament to the wealth and influence of the families that once called this northern Italian city home.

Two of Pavia’s medieval towers that survived until today (Allarme pianeta terra, CC BY-SA 4.0).

During the high medieval period, noble towers became a characteristic feature of Northern Italian cities. Later, similar towers were built also in some German cities that maintained trade relations with the Italian north, such as Nuremberg, Constance, and Regensburg. Noble towers were constructed by affluent families for both representative and defensive purposes. Before the 12th century, many cities lacked effective walls, prompting the construction of towers for outer defense. Additionally, these structures served as inner defenses, particularly during inner-city feuds.

The design of the towers was influenced by the limited space in medieval cities, resulting in a narrow and tall structure with a square shape for enhanced defense. Typically, each floor housed a single room, connected by ladders. Over generations, towers were extended for status. In a seismically active region like Northern Italy, this inadvertently increased the risk of collapse.

In Pavia, the first towers were erected in the 11th century. Being home to many wealthy families during the Middle Ages, Pavia’s skyline was soon full of towers, resulting in its moniker “the city of 100 towers”. This, however, is an exaggeration which yet suggests the prominence and sheer number of towers in Medieval Pavia. Historians believe the actual number of towers peaked at around 65. Notably, unlike in many other places, the towers in Pavia served purely representational purposes.

A 16th century fresco in the church of San Teodoro. It depicts Pavia with numerous towers inside its well protected city walls, highlighting the fact that the towers were not built for defensive, but representational purposes, only (FabioRomanoni, CC BY-SA 4.0).

The meaning of the tower’s representional character becomes clearer when viewed through a lens of early capitalism, which was emerging during that time. Despite lacking practical use or aesthetic appeal, the towers offered an objective measure of status: height. In a competitive society, where the quantification of wealth and power was emerging, these towers symbolized the conversion of economic capital into symbolic and political capital. This Bourdieuan interpretation suggests that the race to build the tallest tower was a decentralized means for patrician families to assert dominance in a changing socio-economic landscape. The towers may not have been practical or exceptionally beautiful, but they became powerful symbols of prestige and influence.

Today, 25 towers remain to some extent. Five towers still stand in their full size, with three located at Piazza Leonardo da Vinci and two on Via Luigi Porta. Others were removed, shortened, or used to construct new buildings. The surviving towers in Pavia, like the Maino tower at Piazza Leonardo da Vinci (standing at an impressive 51 meters), bear witness to the city’s architectural legacy. Notable counterparts include the San Dalmazio tower on Via Luigi Porta, standing at 41 meters. The towers have an average side length of 5 meters, built on a square foundation block made of bound river pebbles for structural stability. Originally, the towers were surrounded by residential buildings and palazzi. Openings were limited, with access granted through doors on upper floors leading to neighbouring buildings. Ground floor doors seen today were not originally constructed but added later.

As Pavia transitioned to the late medieval period under Visconti lordship, the towers lost their symbolic value. With diminished rivalry between Pavian families, many towers were reduced in height or removed. In the 17th and 18th centuries, concerns about stability further led to the modification and removal of these medieval structures. Notably, a tower repurposed as a bell tower collapsed as late as 1987.

Pavia’s medieval towers offer a captivating glimpse into the city’s storied past, reflecting the economic prosperity and turbulent conflicts of the medieval period. Preserved against the odds, these towers stand as enduring symbols of Northern Italy’s architectural heritage, providing modern visitors with a tangible connection to a bygone era.

By Jakob Vogel

Saint Augustine of Hippo: From a Manichean Theologist to a Bishop

Saint Augustine of Hippo (354-430) was a theologian and philosopher of North African origin. He was born in Thagaste, now Souk Ahras in Algeria and was the bishop of Hippo Regius, under the Roman Empire which is currently Annaba in Algeria. He is considered one of the pillars of the Church Fathers who established the intellectual cornerstones of Christianity. His writings have been influential in the development of Western Christianity and Western philosophy. The Spring School of Paleography 2024 provided me with the opportunity to visit the Basilica of San Pietro in Ciel d’Oro in Pavia, where a reliquary houses the sacred remains of Saint Augustine

Painting of Saint Augustin by Philippe de Champaigne

Augustine’s Encounter with Manichaeism

At the age of seventeen, Augustine embarked on an intellectual and spiritual exploration within Manichaeism, attracted by its synthesis of Christian doctrine and Persian dualism. This engagement during his Carthaginian period was driven by a search for a rationalistic interpretation of faith, which Manichaeism appeared to offer through its narratives on the nature of evil and human sin. The sect’s portrayal of a cosmological conflict between light and darkness appealed to Augustine, promising an enlightened perspective that aligned with his critical pursuits.

Following a period of deep engagement with Manichaeism, Augustine’s journey took him through phases of hedonism, skepticism, and profound philosophical inquiry, leading to a state of disillusionment with the various doctrines he had encountered. His pursuit for truth and understanding led him into the depths of “Academic Doubt,” a skepticism rooted in the teachings of the Platonic Academy, which questioned the very possibility of knowing truth. This phase of existential doubt plunged Augustine into a profound depression, as he grappled with the futility of finding absolute truth through human intellect alone.

The Path towards Embracing Christianity

Amidst a profound disillusionment with Manichaeism, astrology, and prior intellectual engagements, Augustine confronted the profound question of whether absolute truth could ever be apprehended by human intellect. His explorations led him to encounter Neo-Platonism, which, drawing from Plotinus, advocated for an introspective quest away from the fallible sensory world towards the immutable truths that stand beyond empirical scrutiny. This philosophical pivot facilitated Augustine’s recognition of certain indubitable truths concerning his own existence, cognition, and intrinsic value.

This epiphany, underpinning a newfound reconciliation with the notion of unchanging truth, significantly propelled Augustine towards a spiritual and intellectual transformation. Parallel to this internal journey, Augustine’s interactions with Ambrose, the influential Bishop of Milan and a master of rhetoric, enriched his understanding and appreciation of Christianity, bridging his philosophical revelations with theological insights. This amalgamation of introspective discovery and theological engagement culminated in a critical juncture in Augustine’s life, laying the foundational groundwork for his eventual conversion to Christianity, marking a decisive turn in his life.

Augustine’s Baptism

In 386, Augustine’s conversion in Milan led him to prepare for baptism under Bishop Ambrose’s guidance, paralleling today’s RCIA (Rite of Christian Initiation of Adults) program. This preparation involved detailed instruction, scrutinies to assess sincerity, and ceremonies emphasizing commitment to Christianity. Augustine and his companions, including his son Adeodatus, underwent a transformative preparation period, culminating in a deeply impactful baptism ceremony during Easter 387. This experience, enriched by the liturgical music and rituals, led Augustine to a profound realization of peace through unity with the Creator, famously expressing, “You made us for yourself and our hearts find no peace until they rest in you.” Augustine’s baptism was a pivotal moment, marking his formal entry into the Christian faith alongside his son.

Augustine the Bishop

After his return to Thagasthe, Augustine formed a community in Hippo. His journey to becoming Bishop of Hippo began with his ordination as a priest in 391, during which he established a monastic community for clergy on church grounds. This community blended monastic life with apostolic duties, emphasizing communal living and strict poverty. Upon becoming assistant bishop in 395, Augustine expanded this communal model to his episcopal household, living and working alongside his clergy under a rule that stressed humility and service.

Valerius, the then Bishop of Hippo, identified Augustine as his successor early on, navigating the canonical hurdles to appoint him as coadjutor bishop despite a false scandal. Augustine’s approach to his episcopal role was deeply influenced by his monastic ideals, focusing on serving Christ humbly and prioritizing communal over individual interests. Throughout his tenure, he balanced the spiritual and administrative demands of his office, advocating for a Christian identity that transcended his clerical duties and laying a foundational example for future religious communities.

Tombeau de Saint Augustin d'Hippone / Tomb of Saint Augustine of Hippo — The Tomb of Saint Augustine of Hippo in Pavia

The Spring school was an opportunity that allowed me to connect personally with the legacy of one of Christianity’s most influential figures. The presence of the relics of Saint Augustine not only serves as a tangible link to the past but also embodies the culmination of his journey and teachings. It was a unique spiritual occasion to embrace the past within the walls of a sacred space that has safeguarded his legacy for centuries.

Bibliography:

Brown, Peter. Augustine of Hippo: A Biography. University of California Press, 2000.

LANCEL, Serge. Augustin et la société féminine de son temps In : Saint Augustin : La Numidie et la société de son temps [en ligne]. Pessac: Ausonius Éditions, 2005

Gafford II, J. A. (2015). The life and conversion of Augustine of Hippo. Tenor of Our Times, 4(1).

http://www.augnet.org/en/life-of-augustine/

A Walk Through the Castello Visconteo: Part 1 – A Quick Look Inside The Courtyard

Let us step inside the walls of Visconti Castle, at the heart of Pavia, a must-visit castle if you ever visit this small town. Not to be mistaken with other castles with the same name, Castello Visconteo di Pavia is only 50 minutes away from Milan by train. Our little series, Walk Through the Castello Visconteo aims to give you a glimpse of the castle and the museums (Musei Civici di Pavia), where the history breathes through every stone and fresco. Built between 1360 and 1365 under the rule of Galeazzo II Visconti, the castle stands as an example of Lombardia’s late Gothic architecture. Although the northern wing of the castle was lost during the Italian War of 1521-1526 under attack by France, today the majority of the castle remains intact and still as captivating as it was first built.

Once you step into the castle, you get to explore not only the castle itself but also the museums it is housing. With our blog series, we will take you on a swift tour of the castle and these museums. We will start with the rooms that successfully preserved some unique frescoes from the periods of two ruling families of Milan: Sforza (1450-1535) and Visconti (1277-1447).

Despite the castle’s partial destruction, the remaining structure still reflects the artistic and architectural brilliance of its era. Visitors can explore the courtyard, the portico, and the loggia with a modest entry fee of 1 euro, while the castle’s rooms house museum collections are accessible with a Civic Museums ticket, which costs 10 euros, or even as cheap as 5 euros on some festive days.

A Glimpse of the Courtyard

Standing in the courtyard, one cannot help but notice the harmonious yet distinct look of the architectural complex. Originally designed as a square structure approximately 150 meters on each side, complete with four corner towers, the castle’s perfection was slightly spoiled by the destruction of the northern wing. Yet, this does not change the majestic atmosphere that fills the space.

Built swiftly after Galeazzo II Visconti’s conquest of Pavia in 1359, the castle was ready for decoration by 1366, when Galeazzo II sought the finest painters of the time to adorn its walls. Today, visitors can still admire the surviving frescoes and sinopias that speak of its grand past.

“The lunette preserves fragments of an almost illegible frescoed composition, which was part of a narrative cycle dedicated to the exploits of Galeazzo II Visconti, the lord who, after conquering Pavia in November 1359, had the castle built as the residence of the Visconti court and adorned it by calling the best painters active in northern Italy.
This cycle occupied the sections of the walls of the lunettes under each arch, probably without interruption, as demonstrated by the presence of the fragment found under the impost of the sub-arch near the passage from the west ravelin…. Along the edges of the lunettes and the ribs in the vaults, there are still geometric decorations here and there – with cosmatesque stars, polylobed frames, and vegetal elements – sometimes resulting from early 20th-century restorations presumably based on pre-existing models.“
– Description Label of the Fresco, in Castello Visconteo

Throughout your walk, pay close attention to the details that offer insights into the daily life and history of the castle:

• Inscriptions:

Painted above some doors, these inscriptions indicated the function of the rooms within.

• • •

• Stonecutters‘ Marks:

Engraved into the stones used for columns and other structures, these marks reveal the craftsmanship behind the castle’s construction.

• • •

• Graffiti:

Spanning from the 16th century to the 19th century, when the castle served as a barracks, these markings provide a personal glimpse into the lives of those who once inhabited this space.

• • •

The Castello Visconteo of Pavia is more than just an architectural marvel; it is a living museum that encapsulates centuries of history, art, and culture. As you wander through its halls and courtyards, you are not merely observing relics of the past, but engaging with the stories and legacies that have shaped this magnificent structure. Enjoy your journey through time and let the echoes of the past enrich your understanding of the present.

We hope that our introduction to the Castello Visconteo was enough to grab your attention! Please stay tuned for Part 2!

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Black, Jane. Absolutism in Renaissance Milan Plenitude of Power under the Visconti and the Sforza, 1329-1535 Jane Black. 1st ed., Oxford Univ. Press, 2010.

“Il Castello.” Il Castello – Musei Civici Di Pavia, museicivici.comune.pv.it/site/home/il-castello.html. Accessed 23 Apr. 2024.

Milano, Archivio Storico Civico e Biblioteca Trivulziana, Cod. Triv. 1390, fol. 3r

Ponzi, Marco. “Mythical Origins of the Visconti Coat of Arms.” Medium, ViridisGreen, 28 Apr. 2024, medium.com/viridisgreen/mythical-origins-of-the-visconti-coat-of-arms-e98778ed2671.

“Sito Ufficiale Castello Sforzesco: L’edificio.” Sito Ufficiale Castello Sforzesco | L’edificio, www.milanocastello.it/en/edificio-voci. Accessed 6 May 2024.

Summer School of Digital Paleography

In the summer of 2023, Göttingen University hosted a 12-day summer school program dedicated to the study of digital paleography. This intensive program delved into various paleographical topics, offering participants a comprehensive exploration of Latin manuscript scripts from the medieval.

The curriculum was thoughtfully structured, with morning sessions focused on the history and transcription of Latin scripts, and afternoon sessions introducing participants to cutting-edge digital methodologies and tools. These included fragmentology, codicology, editing, cataloging, TEI-XML, and advanced imaging techniques such as hyper- and multispectral imaging.

The summer school provided a unique opportunity for participants to engage deeply with leading experts and professionals in the field, acquiring the latest knowledge and innovative approaches to the study of paleography.

Most of the sessions took place at the Digital Humanities department, where a typical day began with instructional lectures followed by hands-on exercises or samples for practice. This format ensured that the knowledge we learn was directly applicable to our research, aligning perfectly with the overarching goal of the program: to equip us with practical skills and insights that we could integrate into our academic work.

Dr. Dorofeeva, the head of paleography, led many of the sessions, guiding us through the major scripts to provide a condensed yet thorough overview of paleographical study. Her teaching style was highly interactive and we had a lot of chances to pose questions and to discuss several interesting topics. In afternoon sessions at the university library, she guided us in selecting specific scripts for individual research projects. In line with the program’s focus on digitalizing this discipline, we were encouraged to use digital tools to document and enrich the archival information of the manuscripts we studied.

Ms. Kipke, an expert in image science, delivered a captivating lecture on digital approaches to image analysis. Her research, which involves intricate details and complex methodologies, was nothing short of fascinating, and her presentation was exceptionally informative.

One of the highlights of the program was a session at the Göttingen University Library with Professor Winfried Rudolf. He gave an insightful lecture on insular scripts and granted us the rare opportunity to examine a writing sample from the university’s collection up close.

Overall, the summer school was an incredible experience, offering invaluable learning opportunities from top experts in the field. It was an excellent opportunity to acquire knowledge and skills that will undoubtedly enhance my research and further my studies in paleography.

Zotero bibliography

Anna Dorofeeva

19/04/2024

There is now a Zotero bibliography for medieval Latin palaeography here.

This is an open bibliography created by Anna Dorofeeva (University of Göttingen). Everyone is welcome to contribute! Before adding items, please note the following instructions for tagging:

1. The tagging language is English. Please only use tags in other languages if there exists no equivalent English term, or if the non-English term is more widely used.

2. Tags are added to items by users and are user-defined (they do not match any existing ontologies or terminologies). You may create new tags in Zotero, but please observe the rules described here. A file downloadable at the bottom of this page provides an overview of the current full list of tags, copy-pasted from Zotero. This file will be updated about once a year.

3. Tag all items with a date, e.g. “ninth century” (no hyphens; do not use precise years). For general / overview publications, use a broad description: “central medieval”, “early modern”, “medieval”, “Renaissance”.

4. If relevant, tag items with a place (city, country, monastery, etc.). Write out “St” as “Saint”. French placenames with “Saint” are hyphenated (e.g. “Saint-Germain-des-Prés”). Please try to use only modern names, but other kinds of names (e.g. “Francia”) are fine if they are commonly used today.

5. Tag all items by general topic or subject, e.g. “parchment”, “codicology”, “endbands”. Multiple tags can and should be used, e.g. “women” “scribes”.

6. Tag all possible script names, creating new tags if necessary. E.g. “pre-Gothic” items can also be tagged with “early Gothic” and “transitional script”. “Gothic” items can also be tagged with “cursive”, “bastarda”, “textualis”, “libraria” etc. “Half-uncial” can also be tagged with “semi-uncial”.

7. If you see an item with missing tags, or with wrong tags, please correct it!

Zotero-tag-list-19.04.2024 Download

Basilica of San Pietro in Ciel d’Oro, Pavia

Introduction

In the heart of Pavia, the San Pietro in Ciel d’Oro stands as a remarkable example of medieval architecture, representing the city’s deep religious roots. As you can see from the following picture, three arches at the base of the sandstone-adorned façade are remnants of an old portico that allude to the church’s illustrious past.

Façade of the building: https://www.lombardiabeniculturali.it/architetture/schede/PV240-00258/

The church’s name, translating to “Saint Peter in Golden Heaven,” is not merely a title but a reflection of the divine inspiration behind its construction. It refers to its exquisite gold leaf mosaics nestled behind the glass tesserae of the apse ceiling, creating a radiant ambiance that bathes the interior in a soft, golden light.

History

The earliest known mention dated back to the year of 604, with a record of a church of Saint Peter the Apostle in Pavia. However, it is widely believed that the church’s foundation goes back to even further. The church has experienced several significant renovations and witnessed key historical events over the years. The present Romanesque church was consecrated by Pope Innocent II in 1132.

The first major renovation was carried out by Liutprand, the King of the Lombards, sometime between 720 and 725. This renovation is closely tied to the transfer of Saint Augustine’s remains from Sardinia to the basilica. Liutprand initiated this move to safeguard the saint’s remains from desecration by the Saracens. Interestingly, Liutprand’s own tomb was later moved to this church as well, though this happened between 1169 and 1180.

Tomb of Liutprand, the King of the Lombards: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:0495_-*Pavia*–*S._Pietro*–*Tomba_di_Liutprando*-_Foto_Giovanni_Dall%27Orto,_Oct_17_2009.jpg

St. Augustine

Today, for modern scholars and tourists alike, the church is renowned primarily as the final resting place of St. Augustine’s remains. His remains, moved here in the 14th century, have made this church a significant pilgrimage destination.

In the center of the church, under the golden ceiling, you have a direct view of the Tomb of St Augustine.

Tomb of St Augustine: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Pietro_in_Ciel_d%27Oro#/media/File:Arca_di_S.Agostino(1362),_Pavia,_S._Pietro_in_Ciel_d’Oro_16.JPG

For more information about St. Augustine, you can refer to other blogs.

Vitrual Access to San Pietro in Ciel d’Oro

In an era where technology breaks down physical barriers, the legacy of this venerable church is finding new life through digital platforms. Online resources and virtual tours are now key avenues, offering everyone, anywhere, a chance to delve into the church’s Romanesque splendor and rich history.

A screen shot from the Basilica visita virtuale: https://www.basilicasanpietroincieldoro.com/visita-virtuale-EN/?scene=63fca0405ee4a1280d09ea41

Through the webstie above, you can easily see a view of the interior of the church, including several audio description.

Besides, there are some other online resources offered by the church, for example an official Youtube channel. On this channel, you can simpliy follow the fathers with a clear introduction and experience the beauty of San Pietro in Ciel d’Oro.

Bibliography

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Pietro_in_Ciel_d%27Oro
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liutprand,_King_of_the_Lombards
https://www.lombardiabeniculturali.it/architetture/schede/PV240-00258/
https://www.piercedhearts.org/treasures/shrines/san_pietro_ciel_de_oro.htm

Digital Resources

Basilica visita virtuale (Virtual Access): basilicasanpietroincieldoro.com/visita-virtuale
Basilica San Pietro in Ciel d’Oro visita virtuale (Youtube channel): https://www.youtube.com/@basilicasanpietroincieldor8393

Castello Visconteo and its library

Actually, there are more than one Castello Visconteo, e.g. Castello Visconteo di Pavia, di Locarno, di Bruzzano, di Binasco, di Voghera, di Cherasco, di San Vito, di Cassano Magnago, di Verona etc., all of which have been under the control of the noble Italian family, Visconti of Milano.

An short introduction over the noble family, Visconti. Briefly saying, they are a very old noble family in north Italia and have ruled Milano from 1277 to 1395. Their name comes from vice comitis, which means they had got this title as Viscount. Gian Galeazzo, whose name can be easily found in Lombards as well as history book and films, became a Duke.

Figure 1 Gian Galeazzo (1351-1402)

So what makes the Castello Visconteo di Pavia, built in the fourteenth century exactly from 1360 to 1365[1], different from other castles under the name of Visconti? There are two reasons.

Firstly, it is the city Pavia. Though it is nowadays less than Milan, Pavia has been once the capital of Ostrogothic Kingdom (Regnum Italiae), and later of Kingdom of the Lombards, as well as of Kingdom of Italy (as one of the constituent kingdoms of the Holy Roman Empire). That could be the reason why Galeazzo II, father of the first Duke of Milan, Gian Galeazzo, selected this city, which has been destroyed during the conflict between the Guelphs (i.e. pro-imperial) and Ghibellines (i.e.pro-papal), as the capital city, until the beginning of 15th century (1413). It is also the birthplace of Gian Galeazzo Visconti.

Figure 2 Il castello Visconteo di Pavia from the south-west, taken on 5th Mar.

Moreover, it is importance to us especially because of its library (i.e. Biblioteca visconteo sforzesca[2]) in the western tower, where there are a lot of manuscripts in various fields like legal and scientific texts, geography, military art, agronomy, medicine, rhetoric , as well as for personal interests: from the aristocratic passion for hunting, dancing or playing chess to the still late Gothic passion for chivalric romances, or the progressive inclination for the Latin and Greek classics, because in the mind of the people in the middle age, an ideal library should have all kind of knowledge.

The library takes shape under the careful direction of Gian Galeazzo – who makes this prestigious collection an expression of his personal power and his political unscrupulousness – through the progressive acquisition of various and more or less substantial book collections, according to various methods: by absorption of family inheritances – paternal, maternal and various family member volumes, such as those of his uncle Bernabò, who Gian Galeazzo opposed in the struggle for power -, through requisitions and confiscations of the book holdings of disgraced figures (such as the cultured ducal secretary Pacino Capelli), or as real war spoils.

The court of the Viscontis and the Sforzas also made use of copyists and illuminators with or without a name, demanding the highest technical and formal quality, in particular for the creation of unique examples in terms of pomp, elegance, preciousness, which could serve as a sophisticated seal of dynastic and personal alliances and whose decorative features reflect, depending on the era, the style then dominant in the Lombardy area and the refined taste of the clients.

Even after capital of the Visconti dominions was moved to Milano, the Duke’s private library was still here. Visconti Library has been one of the biggest library until its transfer to Paris later in 16th century under the French rule (Louis XIV). As a result, most of the manuscripts found nowadays in Bibliothèque nationale de France.

Furthermore, I have got the DH progress about the manuscripts, i.e. the multimedial reconstruction (la ricostruzione multimediale promossa dai Musei Civici di Pavia). It’s a pity that I cannot find any reports about it in English. All the contents are in Italian, so I have to use Google translation and deepL. It is said, that the first stage was the collection of microfilm versions of almost all the volumes identified, so that they could once again be consulted and enjoyed, at least in image form, in the same monumental ‘casket’ in which they were originally kept.

Unlucky, on the 5^th March, the civic museum was closed and we could not take a visit inside and have a look over the multimedial reconstruction. I have taken only one picture from the south-west, showing where the manuscripts used to be.

[1] https://museicivici.comune.pv.it/site/home/il-castello.html

[2] They have a website in Italian, of which this blog get the information about the library and its manuscripts.

Cattedrale di Sant’Eusebio/Vercelli Cathedral

nurayhaskilic

Only a five-minute walk from the train station of Vercelli, you’ll find the cathedral of St. Eusebius. With its rich outer decoration and differences compared to the other buildings around it, like the Seminario Arcivescovile and the Basilica di Sant’Andrea, the cathedral shows multiple signs of its even richer history.

Facade of the Vecelli cathedral: https://www.cittaecattedrali.it/en/bces/9-cathedral-of-sant-eusebio

According to some sources, after the Death of St. Eusebius (283-371 AD), the first Bishop of Vercelli, in the 4^th century a chapel was built in his name. What’s definitive is that a basilica was built on the same spot two centuries later. Both religious buildings were apparently the victims of demolition and robbery, as they are rooted to a pilgrimage route, the Via Francigena, providing many visitors and relics.

The only surviving part of the older romanesque construction is the belltower. The square tower has only one bell chamber with three arches on each side. The tower itself is divided into three horizontal levels, decorated with half columns and arch ornaments.

Bell tower of the Vercelli cathedral: https://www.cittaecattedrali.it/en/bces/9-cathedral-of-sant-eusebio

In the 16^th century the church was rebuilt by Cardinal Guido Luca Ferrero. During this time in the year 1581 St. Eusebius body was found in the cathedral and remains there to this day. Ferrero started the renovation with the apse, choir and the two side chapels.

In the 18^th century the nave, aisles, and transept renovation were finalized which constructed the new Latin cross shape, we still see today. As of today, the cathedral has 3 naves which are divided into a central nave and the two side aisles. These are separated by fives bays with piers to hold them. Infront of them are columns with a Corinthian capital and a marble optic. The central nave has barrel vaults, while the side aisles have dome vaults and ionic columns.

Nave of the Vercelli cathedral: https://www.cittaecattedrali.it/en/bces/9-cathedral-of-sant-eusebio

The side chapels in the transept are devoted to St. Eusebius and the blessed Amadeus IX of Savoy who is also buried there. The house of Savoy ruled over parts of the French and Italian territory. Other members of the family are also buried in the cathedral.

In that time the facade was also redone in a neo classist style by Benedetto Alfieri. Bright and in strong contrast we find minimal decoration mostly of half columns and piers. On the roof are statues of the twelve apostles and Christ as the redeemer.

Facade and sculptures of the Vercelli cathedral: https://www.cittaecattedrali.it/en/bces/9-cathedral-of-sant-eusebio

A century later the dome was finished, and no larger construction followed, until the restoration in the 2010s.

Bibliography

https://www.cittaecattedrali.it/en/bces/9-cathedral-of-sant-eusebio

https://www.beweb.chiesacattolica.it/cattedrali/cattedrale/511/

https://www.heiligenlexikon.de/BiographienE/Eusebius_von_Vercelli.html

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267447644_Restoration_of_historic_timber_structures_the_great_roof_strcutres_of_the_Cathedral_of_Vercelli

Trans Saints in Context, or: What counts as one manuscript?

What one counts as one manuscript can change the interpretation of the texts within it. I was reminded of this during a recent visit to the Biblioteca Capitolare of Verona as part of my project “The Latin Lives of ‘Trans(vestite) Saints’ in Context”. In this project, I study the Latin vitae of so-called Monachoparthenoi – saints who are initially described as female by their hagiographers, but take on a male monastic identity. Most of their vitae were originally written in Greek, but instead of looking at the original texts, I am interested in what scribes writing in Latin in medieval Europe made of these figures: What does copying these vitae reveal about the conceptions of gender boundaries (and the ways in which they could be transgressed) in the minds of those doing the copying?

One way to answer this question is to look at the other texts they were copying at the same time, into the same manuscripts: When the vitae of Monachoparthenoi are transmitted with other saints’ lives, the gender of these saints, their specific models of sanctity, and the general themes raised in their vitae, can provide evidence for contemporary understandings of Monachoparthenoi. Transmitted together with non-hagiographic material, their surroundings might suggest specific ascetic, exegetical, or other arguments that they were used for. In order to uncover the most common contextualizations, I am currently gathering all contents of all pre-13^th century manuscripts that transmit the vitae of Monachoparthenoi in a database.

This work sometimes raises the question “What is a manuscript?” – or rather “What is one manuscript?” The manuscript(s?) now bearing the shelfmark Verona, Bibl. Cap. XCV (90) is (are?) a particularly tricky case. Three vitae of Monachoparthenoi – those of Euphrosyne/Smaragdus, Pelagia/Pelagius and Marina/Marinus – are transmitted here (fol. 180r–199v). Which of the surrounding texts should be understood to form the context of these vitae is not obvious, however: As Paolo Chiesa has shown, what looks like one manuscript now started out as several distinct codicological units.

The vitae of interest here were originally part of a small collection which otherwise only transmitted the passions of unambiguously female martyrs (Sophia and her three daughters, Margaret of Antioch; fol. 151v–173v) and a short text praising the concept of chastity (fol. 199v–200r). This context suggests that the compiler understood Monachoparthenoi as female figures. However, a quire transmitting texts on the male martyrs Vigilius, Sisinnius, Martyrius and Alexander of Trento (fol. 174r–179r) was soon inserted in the middle of this collection. It was also combined with a mixed-gender collection of passions (fol. 1r–143r) and another collection of lives and passions of female saints (fol. 203r–272v). These four parts, all written in the early 9^th century, must have been combined by the 10^th century at the latest, after the passions of the martyrs Sabina (fol. 179r–v), Justus (fol. 200r–202v) and Timothy (fol. 272v–273v) had been added on previously empty folios and all texts had been numbered consecutively. (Another quire [fol. 144–150] was inserted in the 12^th/13^th century, but is of no interest here.)

Codicological structure of Verona, Bibl. Cap. XCV (90)

Thus, the codicological structure of this manuscript suggests a certain amount of uncertainty over the gender identity of Monachoparthenoi: Did their vitae belong only with the passiones of cis female martyrs, as the compiler of the initial small collection thought? Or did they have a place in a non-gender-specific collection of saints’ lives and passions, opening up the possibility of reading them not, or at least not only, as female? In early medieval Verona, the latter view seems to have won out – but the context was never set in stone.

Verona, Bibl. Cap. XCV (90), fol. 199v–200r: End of the Life of St. Marina/us, short text on chastity (early 9^th century); Passion of St. Justus (late 9^th century). Foto: Michael Eber. Published with permission of Biblioteca Capitolare di Verona.

Bibliography

Paolo Chiesa, Note su un’antica raccolta agiografica veronese (Verona, Bibl. Capitolare, MS. XCV), Studi Medievali 28 (1987), pp. 123–153.
Benedetta Valtorta, Manoscritti agiografici latini della Biblioteca Capitolare di Verona. Catalogo (Quaderni di Hagiographica 18), Florence 2020.