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The Hidden Medieval Gem in the Lombard Countryside: The Monastery Complex of Certosa di Pavia

Birds-eye view of the Certosa di Pavia monastery.
Source: https://www.costigliola.it/portfolio_item/lavori-di-manutenzione-monastero-della-certosa-di-pavia/

The Double Origin Story

The Certosa has two origin stories. One of them follows the narrative that the Certosa was a selfless and devout gift from the first Duke of Milan, Gian Galeazzo Visconti, to his deeply religious wife Caterina Visconti. This story claims that the Duke’s second wife Caterina had been advised by a servant of God, monk Stefano Macone, to build a charterhouse in the area where the Certosa now stands. And because the duke was known for his kindness he ordered the Certosa to be built at the bequest of Caterina, at the turn of the fifteenth century. Though a romantic and pious origin story, it doesn’t hold up when we look at the character and actions of the first Duke of Milan: Gian Galeazzo Visconti.

An image from a missal that portrays both duke Gian Galeazzo Visconti (left), and Caterina Visconti (right) kneeling. Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Caterina_Visconti.jpg

In reality duke Gian Galeazzo Visconti was an incredibly ambitious man, who would use ruthless force to see his dreams come true. Upon the death of his father, Galeazzo II Visconti in 1378, Gian Galeazzo became lord of Pavia and quickly started expanding his realm both through conquest and through diplomacy. One of these instances of insatiable conquest comes in the form of Gian Galeazzo betraying his own family by marriage in order to consolidate his rule. On 6 May 1385, Gian Galeazzo Visconti went on a supposedly innocent mission of pilgrimage to Milan with the intention of meeting Caterina Visconti’s father, as well as his uncle Bernabò Visconti, who welcomed Gian Galazzo to his home in Milan. However, the true intention of this pilgrimage was to usurp the holdings of Bernabò and imprison him and his relatives. This coup d’état was what eventually led to him assuming the title “Duke of Milan” and acquiring the power and wealth to build the Certosa di Pavia. But through his actions we can see that the piety and the close familial connections of Gian Galeazzo weren’t the reasons for his desire to build the Certosa in the first place. It was most likely the strategic location of the Certosa that convinced him, since it would act as a mid-way point between the two influential cities of Pavia and Milan. Another reason may well have been a sense of prestige upon undertaking and funding such an ambitious and influential project.

The territorial holdings of the Visconti family upon the death of Gian Galeazzo Visconti.
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Massima_espansione_Viscontea.png

The Construction of the Certosa

A decade after Gian Galeazzo’s coup d’état, the project of building the Certosa was entrusted to Bernardo da Venezia. Because he was undertaking the project of building the Duomo di Milano at the same time, a sort of competition developed between the two major religious buildings. The construction of the Certosa started out with the laying of the first slab, which was an important event not only because it marked the birth of the Certosa, but also because it assembled the people who attended the event and who laid the first pieces. The laying of the first foundation stone on 27 August 1396 was attended by the most important individuals in the Duchy of Milan. This list included members of the nobility, the Bishop of Pavia, who consecrated the event, notables from the other Italian duchies, members of the recently founded University of Pavia, and the duke of Milan himself – Gian Galeazzo Visconti – who placed the first slab. This scene is immortalized within the Certosa’s church portal.

The attendees of the laying of the first foundational slab of Certosa di Pavia.
Source: https://www.certosadipavia.it/storia/

The plans of how the Certosa was to be built depended on the religious order that was going to run the monastery. The monastery was to be a charterhouse, according to the Carthusian model. This meant that the Certosa was to be built with two cloisters, one larger (great cloister), and one smaller (small cloister), with cells surrounding the cloister(s) where the Carthusian monks lived. But since the Certosa also acted as a place of residence for the duke, a ducal palace was incorporated into the complex, together with a large church.

The different sections that make up the Certosa di Pavia.
Source: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233851975_The_TIVAL_project

Though work on the Certosa had begun and continued for multiple years, the building progress was disappointingly slow. By comparison, the rival project of the Duomo di Milano had already been erected as a recognizable structure, while the Certosa’s foundation was still being placed. At the same time, the Carthusian monks were either forced to live in a bare cloister, or to move to other locations to continue their cloistered practices.

The construction of the Certosa came to a sudden halt when Duke Gian Galeazzo Visconti died in 1402 and funding for the project died with him. It was only in 1412, when Gian Galeazzo’s successor Filippo Maria Visconti came to power, that new funding enabled the construction to recommence, this time under architect Giovanni Solari who, like his predecessors, also helped build the Duomo di Milano. It was during the reign of Filippo Maria that much of the Certosa was built: the refectory, library, small cloister, and vestibule were mostly or fully completed and furnished at this time.

The construction of the Certosa was halted once again upon the death of Filippo Maria Visconti in 1447. With it, the Visconti realm was thrust into disorder. It was only when the Sforza dynasty came to power a decade later that construction continued once again. Francesco Sforza, who had no “true” claim to the Visconti lands, wished to consolidate and legitimize his rule and so ordered the Certosa to be worked on once again. The Certosa was finally finished under the Sforza in 1491, with the completion of the church façade. Though plagued by a shortage of marble, the full Certosa di Pavia complex was finished on 16 October 1494, almost a hundred years after the first foundation slab had been placed.

However, it wasn’t until 1550 that the exterior of the Certosa was remodelled to look as it does today.

The Certosa complex seen from the south.
Source: https://www.culturalheritageonline.com/location-1370_Museo-della-Certosa-di-Pavia—Palazzo-Ducale—Virtual-Tour-360%C2%B0.php

The Church

The feature that stands out the most in the Certosa di Pavia complex is the magnificent church building. It was the last building to be completed, most likely because of the competition between the Certosa and the Duomo for the necessary marble required to finish the works. In the end the church was able to obtain the resources and was adorned with an incredibly detailed Gothic church-facade.

The church facade of Certosa di Pavia.
Source: https://www.certosadipavia.it/cathedral/

After 1550, several spires were added to the church building.

The view of the Certosa from behind the church building, with a view of the spires.
Source: https://www.certosadipavia.it

Upon entering the interior of the church we see some of the finest work of Italian artisans of the time.

A painting of the church’s interior from 18th century. This interior remains largely unchanged.
Source: Maximilien de Haese (1765), “Church of the Certosa di Pavia”.

Looking up at the ceiling of the central nave, we see that it is made up of intersecting arches and elaborate tile patterns, with gold inlays where the arches intersect. In addition, a star-like pattern and blue background runs horizontally along both the nave and the aisle sections. Above the transept of the church we find a modest dome that is decorated by a fresco that is divided into eight sections, each portraying a different image.

The dome and its fresco decoration.
Source: https://www.visitpavia.com/it/certosa-di-pavia

The aisles accommodate seven side chapels in total, each of them containing works of art that are famous in their own right. The transept of the church is closed off from the public by a metal fence, but on the right side it is still possible to see Gian Galeazzo Visconti immortalized. The image shows an image of him and his family gifting the Certosa to the Virgin Mary, with his tomb standing immediately underneath.

The Visconti family dedicating the Certosa to Mother Mary.
Source: https://www.bridgemanimages.com/de/ambrogio-da-fossano-il-bergognone-c-1460-1523/gian-galeazzo-visconti-and-sons-offering-the-model-of-the-charterhouse-to-the-virgin-mary-1500-1522/fresco/asset/3496308

In the chancel of the church, in accordance with Carthusian tradition, the choir and the altar are hidden away form the public. The choir stalls have incredibly detailed wood inlays. Tthe walls surrounding the altar are completely covered with works of art: not a single space remains that is not covered with either frescoes or sculptures.

The main altar framed by the choir stalls.
Source: https://www.paesaggioitaliano.eu/lombardia/certosa-di-pavia

Lastly, the old sacristy contains a masterpiece by Baldassarre degli Embriachi: a triptych that is made mainly out of hippopotamus teeth and turtle bone. Two and a half meters in both height and width, it ambitiously portrays the life of Jesus, John the Baptist, and John the Evangelist.

The Embriachi triptych in the Certosa di Pavia.
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Trittico_Completo.jpg

The Small Cloister

The small cloister is, as the name indicates, the smallest part of the Certosa di Pavia complex. Due to its size, the basic structure of the cloister had already been completed by 1402, but the decorations were only completed in 1460. Though it takes up little space in the complex, it is a central and important meeting point for people living in the Certosa, since it is bordered by the church, ducal palace, and great cloister. The roof of the small cloister had been covered in copper plate, but during the Napoleonic wars it was taken off to be melted down and made into cannons.

The small cloister garden, with a part of the Certosa’s church.
Source: https://www.certosadipavia.it/

The Great Cloister

The great cloister is the accommodation area for the Certosa. This is where the Carthusian monks spent their lives living in solitude and silence. At first the great cloister included 23 cells, but in the sixteenth century this was expanded to a total of 36 cells. Some monks lived in actual houses, whose roofs are visible rising above the individual cells. The structure of the great cloister had already been built in 1463, with the finishing decoration being being completed by 1480. The large lawn in the middle of cloister was used for the monks to plant flowers and medicinal plants if needed. The northern corner of the lawn was used as a burial ground before the eighteenth century.

The northern side of the great cloister as seen upon exiting the small cloister.
Source: https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Certosa_di_Pavia,_Grand_Cloister,_view_from_north_side.jpg

The Ducal Palace

Even though nowadays the building in between the church and the small cloister in the south is called the ducal palace, this locations was only occasionally used as a summer residence by the lords in the region. It is only in the early-to-mid 17th century that the construction of the ducal palace as we see it today, was built in the baroque style. Today the ducal palace primarily houses the Certosa di Pavia museum.

The ducal palace museum.
Source: https://www.certosadipavia.it/

Later History of The Certosa

After the Certosa was officially finished with the celebratory festivities in 1494. In the 16th century as mentioned before, the exterior of the buildings in the Certosa complex had been further embellished with detail, such as the continued work on the church facade, and the interiors had been additionally furnished. At the same time we get manuscripts being produced in the Certosa, most notably the missals and chorals.

A choral from the Certosa di Pavia, depicted in the decoration is Gian Galeazzo Visconti.
Source: https://www.artribune.com/arti-visive/archeologia-arte-antica/2021/04/certosa-pavia-restauro-graduale-miniato/

And in the 17th century we have the ducal palace built, this becoming the most “golden-age” of the Certosa di Pavia seen in its most complete, though issues about completing the church facade were still ongoing. In the 18th century a change occurred, artworks were still being produced to further contribute to the already extravagant complex, but the power of the church started being undermined with the arrival of Enlightenment thought. Because of this the Certosa did not have as much funding as before, and not only that, the Carthusian order that had been inhabiting the complex since its beginnings, had been replaced by the Cistercians, and then not soon after changed ownership to the Carmelites. All the meanwhile in the late 18th century northern Italy was being invaded by Napoleon and bringing secular changes to the region, further diminishing the power of the church. During this time the collections of artwork of the Certosa was looted, and resources for the war effort were stripped away from the Certosa’s buildings.

In the early 19th century the Certosa was rid of the French, and in the mid-19th century the Carthusians were once again allowed to return to the complex. But this was a short lived residence as in 1880 they were once again told to leave as the state of the Kingdom of Italy had acquired the complex. In the early 20th century, the Certosa was in desperate need of reconstruction still recovering from the pillaging at the hands of Napoleonic troops a century before, however during the First World War restorations were halted. They are quickly continued after the war, and the Certosa is given back once again to the Carthusians, while Italy falls under fascism with Benito Mussolini leading the country. Benito Mussolini ends up visiting the Certosa complex in 1932 the same year the Carthusian order had returned back to the Certosa.

Benito Mussolini visiting the Certosa di Pavia, and meeting with the father prior.
Source: https://www.certosadipavia.it/

The Certosa and fascist dictator Benito Mussolini end up having an interesting relationship after the war. After Mussolini had been killed, he was buried in the Musocco cemetery in Milan, but in April 1946 the grave had signs of being recently dug up, and it was found that the corpse of Mussolini was not there.

An image of a recently dug up grave which housed the corpse of Benito Mussolini.
Source: https://www.passaggilenti.com/corpo-del-duce-storia-trafugamento/

A couple of months later a lead in the investigation was discovered, where two Franciscan monks, Father Zucca and Father Parini were brought up by a neo-fascist suspect Domenico Leccisi in an interrogation. Through that the investigation is led to the Certosa di Pavia on August 12th 1946, where the corpse of the fascist dictator is found on the premises encased in two rubber bags and a wooden coffin. It is later found out that the two Fathers did not have any involvement in the hiding of the body and were probably used as scapegoats by Domenico Leccisi and his neo-fascist group who had actually dug up the body.

After this incident the Carthusians are replaced by the Carmelites again, yet they are then replaced by the Cistercians soon after in 1968, the religious order that inhabits the Certosa di Pavia till this day. The last exciting story that happens in the Certosa is the stealing of the Embriachi Triptych in the old sacristy in 1984, which was intended to be sold abroad, the perpetrators are imprisoned soon after and one of the oldest pieces of the Certosa is returned back without suffering any serious damage.

The triptych tiles recovered by the Carabinieri.
Source: https://www.certosadipavia.it

Bibliography

https://www.certosadipavia.it/

Carla Simone, Marco Martini, et al., ‘The TIVAL project: Integrating Multidisciplinary Perspectives’ (2012).

https://naviglireloading.eu/curiosita/la-certosa-di-pavia/

https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/464453?searchField=All&sortBy=Relevance&ft=Baldassare+degli+Embriachi&offset=0&rpp=20&pos=2

https://www.passaggilenti.com/corpo-del-duce-storia-trafugamento/

http://www.paviaedintorni.it/temi/eventi_file/eventi_storici_file/eventistorici_furtotrittico.htm

https://www.artribune.com/arti-visive/archeologia-arte-antica/2021/04/certosa-pavia-restauro-graduale-miniato/

https://www.visitpavia.com/it/certosa-di-pavia

https://www.quatarobpavia.it/certosa-di-pavia-curiosita-e-leggende/

eManuSkript: New project to create digital teaching tools in palaeography funded at the University of Göttingen

Group of people sitting around a round table in the middle of a room filled with bookcases.
Göttingen students working with manuscripts at the Vercelli Spring School.

A project by Dr. Anna Dorofeeva at the Institute for Digital Humanities in Göttingen has recently been awarded €400,000 in the Freiraum 2023 competition by the Stiftung Innovation in der Hochschullehre. Over the next two years, a team of historians and programmers, working in close collaboration with BA and MA students, will develop a range of teaching and learning tools for manuscript studies, including palaeography.

There exist very few digital tools suitable for teaching the full range of skills necessary for working with medieval codices. Access to culturally important manuscript sources is restricted to those with specialized subject knowledge, which creates significant challenges for students. In addition, the immense potential of the millions of manuscript images available in interoperable IIIF format has yet to be fully exploited in teaching. This project aims to develop a series of digital tools that will make use of these images and of the expertise available in Göttingen. The tools will include apps for measuring, selecting and modifying scripts; evaluating page layout; and working with manuscript bindings. Other apps and extensive tutorials are planned. The project will also undertake further development of pre-existing tools, including improvements to applications for multispectral imaging, for digital editing and annotation, and for forms of image storytelling. Guided student participation will be key to the development of these tools, which means that they will be rooted in practical requirements, conceived by the users themselves, and suitable for both classroom and research use.

The eManuSkript project runs for two years from 1 April 2024. A website with more information is being developed. In the meantime, please get in touch with the team members if you have any questions or if you wish to collaborate.